IMMS Flashcards
1
Q
what does the mitochondria consist of
A
double membrane cristae matrix (Krebs cycle) inner membrane (oxidative phosphorylation) - produces ATP
2
Q
what does rough ER have
A
ribosomes for protein production
3
Q
what does rough ER do
A
protein production
4
Q
what does smooth ER do
A
produce lipids
5
Q
what does Golgi apparatus do
A
- receives proteins n lipids from ER
- modifies and packages them into vesicles for transport
6
Q
what do the cis, medial and trans Golgi faces do
A
cis - nearest to nucleus, protein phosphorylation
medial - forms oligosaccharides (by adding sugar to protein n lipids)
trans - packages into vesicles n proteolysis
7
Q
what do vesicles form
A
lipid bilayer
8
Q
what does the cis golgi face do
A
nearest to nucleus, protein phosphorylation
9
Q
what does the medial golgi face do
A
forms oligosaccharides (by adding sugar to protein n lipids)
10
Q
what does the trans Golgi face do
A
packages into vesicles n proteolysis
11
Q
what are the 3 types of vesicles
A
- lysosome
- secretory
- transport
12
Q
what does the cytoskeleton of the cell do
A
keeps cell shape and organises parts of cell
13
Q
what is the structure of the cytoskeleton (smallest to largest)
A
microfilaments (actin) 5nm
intermediate filaments 10nm
microtubules 25nm
14
Q
which cytoskeletal structure is 5nm
A
microfilaments
15
Q
which cytoskeletal structure is 10nm
A
intermediate filaments
16
Q
which cytoskeletal structure is 25nm
A
microtubules
17
Q
what are the 3 types of cell energy storage
A
- lipofuscin
- lipid droplets (in adipose tissue)
- glycogen
18
Q
what is glycogen
A
main cell storage of glucose
19
Q
where are lipid droplets mainly found
A
adipose tissue
20
Q
what is lipofuscin
A
droplet deposits around nucleus
21
Q
how does lipofuscin alter with age
A
increases
22
Q
what does the cell membrane consist of
A
phospholipid bilayer
interspersed with proteins, carbs and cholesterol
23
Q
what is the function of the cell membrane (3)
A
- protects cell from outside
- selectively permeable to ions
- transport in and out of cell
24
Q
how do transporter proteins act
A
transmembrane
- move substances in n out of cell (facilitated diffusion or active transport)
25
what are desmosomes specialised for
cell to cell adhesion
26
what are desmosomes
protein complexes found in cell membrane of epithelial cells
27
what do cell surface receptors do
bind to external ligand convert extracellular info into intracellular info
28
what are 3 types of cell surface receptors
1. ion channels (opens)
2. G protein (activates protein to open ion channel)
3. enzyme linked (receptor linked to intracellular enzyme
29
what is receptor mediated endocytosis
pinocytosis
30
what are the 4 steps of endocytosis
1. molecules bind to receptors in clathrin-coated pit in cell membrane
2. pits bud to form clathrin-coated vesicles
3. vesicles fuse with intracellular endosome
4. contents are either transported to lysosome or recycled into cell membrane
31
define diffusion
movement of a molecule from an area of high conc to an area of low conc down conc grad
32
define facilitated difffusion
normal diffusion through a transmembrane protein
33
what is facilitated diffusion useful for
large or polar molecules
34
define active transport
movement of molecules against conc gradient (uses ATP)
35
define homeostasis
maintenance of stable internal conditions within the body
36
what are the 3 types of cell communication
autocrine (Within same cell)
paracrine (Signal effects nearby cells)
endocrine (signal secreted into blood)
37
what is autocrine cell communication
within the same cell
38
what is paracrine cell communication
signal affects nearby cells
39
what is endocrine cell cmmunication
signal secreted into blood
40
what is positive feedback
amplification of process - chainreaction
41
what is negative feedback
result of the action inhibits another action
42
******what does extracellular fluid consist of
80% extracellular space
| 20% plasma
43
what are the 3 steps to osmoregulation (dehydration)
1. low water levels detected by hypothalamic osmoreceptors
2. osoreceptors send signal to pituitary to release ADH
3. ADH travels to kidney and causes increased fluid uptake
44
what is the difference between sensible and insensible fluid loss
sensible can be measured: urien, faeces, breathing
| insensible cannot be measured - evaporation
45
list examples of sensible fluid loss
urine
faeces
breathing
(measured)
46
name an example of insensible fluid loss
evaporation
| cat be measured
47
what is diff btwn osmolality and osmolarity
conc of solutes in plasma per KG (osmolality) or per LITRE (osmolarity) of solution
48
define osmolality
conc of solutes in plasma per kg of solution
49
define osmolarity
conc of solutes in plasma per litre of solution
50
define osmotic pressure
hoe esily solution can take in water
51
define oncotic pressure
type of osmotic pressure concerning alubmin; pressure exerted
52
define oedema
increased movement of fluid from plasma to interstitial place, or decrease (vice versa)
53
name 4 types of oedema
normal
inflammatory
lymphatic
hypoalbuminaemic
54
what is normal oedema
increased hydrostatic pressure forces fluid out of vessels
55
what is inflammatory oedema
histamine increases blood vessel permeability
56
what is lymphatic oedema
lymph system doesn't remove fluid from extracellular space
57
what is hypoalbuminaemic anaemia
decreased albumin therefore decreased oncotic pressure
58
what are carbs made of
monosaccharides - 6 carbon
59
which bonds form btwn monosaccharides to produce di/polysaccharides (and what type of reaction is this)
glycosidic
| condensation
60
are lipids hydrophilic or phobic
phobic
61
what is a triglyceride
glycerol head with 3 fatty acid tails
62
what does a nucleotide consist of (3)
nitrogenous base
pentose sugar
phosphate group
63
which bond forms btwn adjacent nucleotides
phosphodiester
64
which bonds form opposite nucleotides
hydrogen
65
in an amino acid, what is the central carbon atom attached to (4)
amine goup
carboxyl group
hydrogen group
variable group
66
which bonds form btwn amino acids in a condensation reaction
peptide bonds
67
what is primary protein structuer
specific sequence of amino acids
68
what is secondary protein structure
alpha helix n beta pleated sheet
69
what is tertiary protein structure
folding into 3d shape eg disulphide bridges, h bonds and polar regions
70
what is quaternary protein structure
multiple tertiary proteins working together eg Hb
71
discuss enzymes
- bilogical catalyst
- protein and non-protein component
- induced fit theory
- coenzyme: non protein component
72
what are the intermolecular forces (weakto strong)
vDW - permanent dipole - hydrogen bonds
73
what kind of sugar are DNAand RNA
pentose
74
what do DNA and RNAconsist of
pentose sugar
phosphat group
nitrogenous base
75
what bonds are btwn base pairings
hydrogen
76
what are the 4 steps of semi conservative replication (1 original and 1 new DNA strand)
1. topoisomerase unwinds DNA from supercoiled state
2. helicase unzips DNA strand at replication fork
3. DNA polymerase synthesises new DNA - leading strand produced continuous, lagging strand produced in short Okazaki fragments (asissted by DNA primase)
4. new strands joined up by ligase
77
what does topoisomerase do in semi conservative replication
unwinds dan from supercoiled state
78
what does helices do
unzips dna strand at replication fork
79
what does DNA polymerase do
synthesises new dna
80
what are the 5 steps of transcription and translation
1. RNA polymerase and transcription factors bind to promoter region on gene
2. DNA strand unwinds and RNA polymerase moves across active gene, producing strand of mRNA
3. gene splicing - introns are removed, exons reassembled in variable rearrangement
4. mature mRNA travels form nucleus and the 5' end binds to ribosome
5. tRNA with specific anticodon binds to corresponding mRNA codon - amino acid attached to tRNA
81
name 3 stop codons
UAA
UGA
UAG
82
define mis-sense
SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism)
| - change in single nucleotide may result in potential change in amino acid
83
define non-sense
SNP causes stop codon to be translated so not fully formed amino acid chain = non functioning protein
84
what are the 4 steps in the cell cycle
1. G1 phase - cellular contents replicated
2. S phase - chromosomes replicated
3. G2 phase - replication checked for errors, components reassembled and rearranged
4. MITOSIS
85
what happens during g1
cellular contents replicated
86
what happens during s phase
chromosomes replicated
87
what happens during g2 phase
replication checked for errors, components reassembled n rearranged
88
what is interphase
g1 - s - g2 (can't see
89
what happens in prophase
- chromatin condenses to visible chromosomes
| - centrioles migrate to poles of cell
90
what happens in prometaphase
- nuclear membrane breaks down
| - microtubules from centrioles bind to centreoeres
91
what happens in metaphase
- chromosomes line up in middle of cell (metaphase plate)
92
what happens in anaphase
sister chromatids pulled apart to opposite ends of cell by microtubules
93
what happens during telophase
- nuclear membrane reforms
| - chromosomes decondense to form chromatin
94
what happens during cytokinesis
cytoplasm dives to form 2 daughter cells
95
what are the 3 steps of meiosis
1. interphase (contents replicate, 2n - 4n)
2. meiosis 1 - mitosis, but crossing over n independent assortment occurs (4n - 2n)
3. meiosis 2 - daughter cells divide to form haploid cells (2n - n)
96
what happens during meiosis 1
mitosis, but crossing over n independent assortment occurs (4n - 2n)
97
what happens during meiosis 2
daughter cells divide to form haploid cells (2n - n)
98
what is Down syndrome
trisomy 21 - numerical abnormality
99
are structural abnormalities more or less serious than numerical
less bc genetic info still present just diff sizes
100
what is gametogenesis
meiosis to form gametes
101
what is Mendel's 2nd law
hereditary box crossover diagram (dominant n recessive alleles)
102
what is gonadal mosaicism
epigenetic means env factors (eg age) causes sperm n egg to have diff genetic info to mum n dad
103
define genotype
genetic makeup of individual
104
define phenotype
observable characteristsitcs of an individual
105
name 2 types of inheritance
mendelian
| multifactorial
106
what is mendelian inheritance
purely genes
107
what is multifactorial inheritance
comb of genes n env
108
what is autosomal dominance
condition presents in heterozygous state
109
what is an example of autosomal dominant
huntingtons disease
110
what is autosomal recessive
condition only presents in homozygous state
111
name 2 examples of autosomal recessive
CF
| sickle cell anaemia
112
what is sex linked inheritance (x linked)
genes carried on maternal x chromosome
| - transmitted through unaffected females, affects mostly males
113
what are 2 examples of x linked inheritance
haemophilia
| muscular dystrophy
114
which inheritance affects mostly males
x linked
115
what is lyonisation
1 materanal x chromosome is inactivated, random (in x linked: faulty x could be active or inactive)
116
what is knudson's 2 hit hypothesis
cancer is a result of accumulated mutations to cell DNA
117
what is multifactorial disease
comb of genes n env eg schizophrenia
| risk of cond higher in relatives
118
what is penetrance
percentage of individuals w specific genotype that show expected phenotype
119
what is variable expression
individuals w same genotype may have differeing phenotypes
120
what is anticipation
genetic defects affect successive generations early and more severely, due to repeat triplet sequences
121
what is the definition of metabolism
chemical processes occurring within body to maintain life
122
define basal metabolic rate
rate of energy use in body for vital functions at rest
123
which factors affect bmr
age
gender
body size n composition
124
is the ATP-ADP cycle energetically feasible
favourable - negative gibs energy
125
what are 3 methods of ATP genertion
glycolysis
krebs cycle
oxidative phosphorylation
