Implicit Theories and Intelligence Case Studies

Question 1

Why are implicit theories so important?

Answer 1

1. real world implications in our everyday lives
2. formal theories of intelligence can come from more implicit theories (implicit gives rise)
3. helps question formal theories and their validity

Question 2

what are implicit theories?

Answer 2

individuals develop theories, beliefs and deeply held schemas about human attributes (and intelligence which is an attribute subject to this)

Question 3

the unconsciousness of implicit theories:

Answer 3

ideas of intelligence split into explicit and implicit (which feeds into explicit)

Question 4

what are implicit ideas of intelligence?

Answer 4

before thoughts can become explicit, well have these implicit unconscious ideas linking ti schemas (thoughts and feelings of intelligence can come up unconsciously from our interaction and experiences within life)

Question 5

what are explicit ideas of intelligence?

Answer 5

conscious / explicit ideas of what we think / believe intelligence is (likely to come across formal ideas as well)

Question 6

does the amount explicit and implicit vary?

Answer 6

yes, it varies among a group
^ unconscious can become explicit but you will always have some sort of unconscious implicit ideas

Question 7

what does implicit theories of intelligence link to?

Answer 7

unconscious bias -> lead to prejudice and unconscious ideas which are harmful to communities

Question 8

Personal Theories of intelligence interact with every aspect of our lives [Sternberg (2000)].

What are some examples where personal theories of intelligence have an impact

Answer 8

• education
• work
• friend
• family

Question 9

(Dwerk, 1986) looked at implicit theories or mindsets, arguing that people fall into two camps of thinking when it comes to intelligence, especially when associated with motivation. what are these two?

Answer 9

1. intelligence is flexible and can be changed (incremental)
2. intelligence is fixed and can’t be changed (entity)

Question 10

we can argue that implicit theories of mindset linked to motivation..

Answer 10

aren’t just related to self-belief but also belief about others
* opinions might be contextual depending on the situation -> there might be a bit of a continuum as you will never always be flexible or always be fixed

Question 11

(Costa & Faria, 2018) Meta-analysis of studies looking at the role of personal implicit theories of intelligence on academic performance
* reviewed 46 studies (412,022 students) which collected implicit theory data through self-report measures (mainly derived from Dweck, 1999).
* correlated with academic grades in different subjects

What did they find?

Answer 11

• low but sig assoc between implicit theories and academic performance (particular for grades within subjects focusing on verbal / quantitative skills (english / maths / science)
• those who viewed intelligence as malleable were more likely to have better grades overall (inc verbal and quantitative subs)
• those who viewed intelligence as fixed still showed a (not as strong) positive association with grades in specific subjects but not to the same extent as those with a malleable view

Question 12

this meta-analysis supports other findings in the literature, what are some examples of these?

Answer 12

• malleable views of intelligence tend to lead to higher motivation and attainment
• fixed views tend to lead to lower motivation and attainment

^ suggests thoughts / ideas about intelligence of ourselves can impact how we perform within an educational setting
[Blackwell et al. (2007) and Dweck (1999)]

Question 13

Heslin et al. (2005) considered the role of implicit theories managers hold around personality, ability and intelligence influences their recognition of changes in employee behaviours.

They looked at 4 different studies, what were these?

Answer 13

• recognition of improved performance after poor performance
• recognition of declining performance after good performance
• effect of irrelevant poor performance information on performance ratings
• if training a manager to hold a different / adjust implicit belief would impact their appraisal ratings

Question 14

What was found in the recognition of improved performance after poor performance cognition?

Answer 14

those with a malleable view were more likely to recognise improved performance compared to those with a fixed view

Question 15

What was found in the recognition of declining performance after good performance?

Answer 15

those with malleable view were more likely to recognise declining performance compared to those with a fixed view

Question 16

What was the finding in effect of irrelevant poor performance information on performance ratings?

Answer 16

irrelevant poor performance was more likely to impact the performance rating of those with a fixed view

Question 17

what was the finding if training a manager to hold a different / adjust implicit belief would impact their appraisal ratings

Answer 17

exposing those with a fixed view to malleable views could modify their view to a more malleable one and those that adopted this view were more open to acknowledging changes in employee performance (more able to recognise those changes in performance)

Question 18

what do these findings suggest on an outer implications

Answer 18

given they had an impact, if there is an unconscious bias that are prejudice in nature, they can have a negative impact - even if it’s unintentional

Question 19

Sternberg et al., (1981) investigated Layperson theories of intelligence.

In experiment 1, they gathered 186 people (61 library studying, 63 supermarket, 62 train waiting)

They were asked to list behaviours which were characteristics of:
* intelligence
* academic intelligence
* everyday intelligence
* unintelligence

In experiment 2, 122 people were asked to rate the behaviour list from exp 1 on how well they reflect aspects of intelligence.

Using the data, 3 dimensions of intelligence were found. What are they?

Answer 19

• Practical Problem Solving
• Verbal Ability
• Social Competence **doesn’t show up again in a Western context

Question 20

practical problem solving

Answer 20

• analyse
• reasoned decision-making
• flexible thinking
• effective solutions

Question 21

verbal ability

Answer 21

• good vocab
• confident use
• communicate effectively
• good reading comprehension

Question 22

social competence

Answer 22

• good knowledge of themselves and others
• can use this knowledge to successfully navigate relationships
• good interpersonal skills
• good balance of independence and interdependence

Question 23

When this study was repeated in the later 80s, different categories were found with lots of overlap and new categories about the way of thinking and reasoning. What were these?

Answer 23

• practical problem solving
• verbal ability
• intellectual balance and integration
• goal orientation and attainment
• contextual intelligence
• fluid thinking

Question 24

practical problem solving

Answer 24

effective and successful solving problems

Question 25

Verbal ability

Answer 25

* convo fluency * good vocal * reading ability

Question 26

Intelligence balance and integration

Answer 26

* making connections between topics and concepts * identify differences

Question 27

Goal Orientation & Attainment

Answer 27

* able to plan actions and efforts to meet a goal * high achieving

Question 28

contextual intelligence

Answer 28

* able to learn from experiences * understand and interpret current environment

Question 29

fluid thoughts

Answer 29

* quick thinking * thorough grasp of topics

Question 30

what characteristic is missing from the 1980s updated version

Answer 30

there is no connection to social competence

Question 31

how do cultural attitudes differ?

Answer 31

reflects what is culturally valued * cultural differences usually rooted in which aspects of intelligence are most valued with a culture (Valencia & Suzuki, 2011) * often result of deeply rooted philosophies * often considered abstract concepts -> important to remember that there will still be individual differences and subcultural differences

Question 32

why is intelligence not a certain model universally?

Answer 32

what is considered intelligence in one environment may not be considered or as easily translatable to another -> it can be difficult to explain and transfer between different languages and cultural ideas, especially when intelligence is very abstract

Question 33

what influences Western views of intelligence?

Answer 33

* Aristotle & Plato * Greco-Judeo-Christian heritage

Question 34

what influences Eastern views of intelligence?

Answer 34

* Taoist * Confucian * Buddhist

Question 35

Plato and Aristotle philosophical influence..

Answer 35

Intelligence is explicitly linked to humans -> in their ideas REASON = INTELLIGENCE There are three souls of the natural world.

Question 36

What are the three souls of the natural world as described by Plato and Aristotle?

Answer 36

* Vegetative Soul (linked to plants) * Sensitive Soul (linked to animals capable of movement) * Intellectual Soul (linked to humans)

Question 37

What two types of reasoning does Plato and Aristotle use?

Answer 37

Discursive (slow and deductive) Intuitive (Fast and Non-Deductive)

Question 38

What did they say that goes against layperson theory

Answer 38

* intelligence was just reason -> memory, sensory perception and imagination were not part of intelligence (instead separate)

Question 39

Why was the sensory soul, sensory perception and cognitive ability were not equated to intelligence

Answer 39

Intelligence was only a human attribute whereas sensitive soul, sensory perception etc are linked to animals

Question 40

How does this relate to Sternberg?

Answer 40

Can see the influence in the ideas here -> specifically the influence of reasoning in our ideas of what intelligence is

Question 41

what is considered important in Western cultures?

Answer 41

* speed / depth of mental processing * verbal abilities * emphasis on learning * good memory * good cognitive skills

Question 42

What does Eastern Phisophers focus on?

Answer 42

greater emphasis on connection with others and how important that is

Question 43

Confucius (551-479 AD) [Eastern Philosophical Influence]

Answer 43

* Love each other, honour parents * Do the right thing not what is advantageous * Intelligence through benevolence

Question 44

Taoists [Eastern Philosophical Influence]

Answer 44

* Humility * Freedom from conventional judgements * Ability to perceive and response to changes * show full awareness of oneself and the world around us

Question 45

Yang & Sternberg (1997) looked to explore whether these philosophical influences have had an influence on layperson ideas of intelligence, they asked descriptors from 68 Taiwanese Chinese people from various backgrounds; 434 individuals were then asked to rate the descriptors (half undergrads / half non-students) 5 Aspects of Intelligence emerged. What were they?

Answer 45

* General Cognitive Factor Intellgence * Interpersonal Intelligence * Intrapersonal Intelligence * Intellectual Self-Assertions * Intellectual Self-Effacement

Question 46

What is the difference between Eastern compared to Western views of Intelligence

Answer 46

eastern has more emphasis in the connection of other people and how intelligence may be drawn from that

Question 47

general cognitive factor intelligence

Answer 47

similar to the idea of having good ability for practical problem solving

Question 48

Interpersonal Intelligence

Answer 48

relating to others harmoniously

Question 49

Intrapersonal Intelligence

Answer 49

* self-awareness * ability to assess the self objectively

Question 50

Intellectual Self-Assertion

Answer 50

* confidence * awareness of intelligence * gain self-worth from this awareness

Question 51

Intellectual self-effacement

Answer 51

modest about intellectual ability

Question 52

what are some buddhist and hindu traditions

Answer 52

* waking up * noticing * recognising * understanding * comprehending * determination * mental effort * feeling & opinions

Question 53

Bara & Das (2004) looked at some layperson thoughts of intelligence, what did they find?

Answer 53

* high-level thinking * judgment * decision-making * emphasis on the way that these aspects connect and are achieved through self-awareness (intra-personal consideration) * how others present their modesty, appreciation and politeness to those around them and the connect to something beyond them

Question 54

what is considered important in Eastern cultures?

Answer 54

* similar ideas (decision-making, fluid thinking) to western cultures * But they apply not just to the individual * extend to social, historical and spiritual aspects of everyday life (connections outside themselves)

Question 55

what is an individualistic culture?

Answer 55

* usually associated with western culture * focus on the primacy of the individual

Question 56

what is a collectivist culture?

Answer 56

* usually associated with eastern culture * focus collective nature of social obligation

Question 57

When comparing views of intelligence between Malay and Australian students, what differences did they find? [Gill & Keats, 1980s]

Answer 57

Australian -> * academic acumen * adaptability to new situations (note: no social connection) Malay -> * adaptability * speed * creativity of problem solving * prize both social & cognitive characteristics

Question 58

What are some similarities found between Chinese and Australian individuals?

Answer 58

* willingness to think / observe * wide range of interests * independent thinking

Question 59

What is the main difference between Chinese and Australian students?

Answer 59

Chinese students have social confidence (connection with other things and the world around them / how you re presenting your intelligence to other people)

Question 60

what are some differences when comparing the implicit views of intelligence between Chinese and Australian individuals?

Answer 60

Chinese -> Ability to Learn / Analytical Ability / Sharp Thinking / Displaying Confidence Australian -> Logical Reasoning / Problem Solving

Question 61

Layperson theories across cultures

Answer 61

* look at the diagram -> I don't actually know if it's needed lol

Question 62

When looking at Costa and Faria research about fixed and malleable theories and how these leads to attainment. How may this change across cultures / locations?

Answer 62

Eastern Continents: positive association between flexible ideas and attainment Europe: positive association between fixed beliefs and attainment North America: negative association between fixed beliefs and attainment

Question 63

Lim, Plucker & Im (2002) looked at whether there was a reduction in cross-cultural differences. They got 384 adults, similar to the methods of Sternberg where they took a list of behaviours from Korean Participants and got another group to rate the behaviours / characteristics. They found 5 aspects of intelligence emerge. What were these?

Answer 63

* Social Competence (manage social situations and relationships well) * Problem-solving abilities (effective and successful and solving problems) * Coping with Novelty (able to quickly and effectively manage new situations and information) * Self-Management (able to reflect on actions / manage emotions) * Practical Competence (able to confidently tackle tasks and challenges a systematic and effective manner)

Question 64

What can we conclude from Korean Intelligence?

Answer 64

social competence is only one of the aspects * a lot focus around problem solving -> more emphasis on attributes traditionally held in Western cultures (i.e. globalisation and these differences are just reducing) * most participants found social competence as the aspect which had more value -> different cultural influence coming in from somewhere

Question 65

Why might views on intelligence be changing within Korea?

Answer 65

the use of Western intelligence tests * with increasing internationalisation, are layperson theories of intelligence converging across cultures

Question 66

In Lim et al. (2002) findings, which dimension of intelligence did Korean participants value most?

Answer 66

Social Competence

Question 67

What can implicit theories lead to?

Answer 67

more formalised theories

Question 68

what can implicit theories unconsciously build up?

Answer 68

bias

Question 69

Where do most of our formal theories come from?

Answer 69

Western perceptives * which isn't a bad thing but this has not always been acknowledged with ideas applied universally

Question 70

what other factors should we consider, if not just culture

Answer 70

race, gender, ability, socio-economic status

Question 71

what are two ways in which formalise approaches?

Answer 71

developing measures and theories

Question 72

what's an issue with old theorists?

Answer 72

contribute a focus on testing but not theory development * measuring didn't get to grips of what intelligence is instead they were just building from implicit ideas

Question 73

who looked at the theory of intelligence more systematically

Answer 73

spearman

Question 74

Who was Galton (-1865)?

Answer 74

* forefather of intelligence testing * view intelligence as measurable and based on biological factors * 1st to suggest human being differ on intelligence * influenced by plato, Aristotle and Darwin * viewed intelligence as measurable and based on biological factors (heritability -> physical entity) * intelligence is the ability to reason and respond to a large range of experiences through the senses

Question 75

what did Galton hereditary work explicitly link to?

Answer 75

eugenics

Question 76

eugenics

Answer 76

reproductive selection process within humans that aims to create children with desirable traits

Question 77

positive eugenics

Answer 77

encouraging reproduction in those who are perceived to have superior traits

Question 78

negative eugenics

Answer 78

discouraging or eliminating reproduction in those perceived to have poor hereditary traits

Question 79

Who was Binet (-1904)?

Answer 79

* father of IQ testing (considered the basis for the future -> developed a scale specifically aimed at being an educational tool to identify children who needed a bit of extra school support) * viewed intelligence as malleable * developed Binet-Simon scale of intelligence * developed the concept of mental age and created age norms to compare to -> to decide whether individuals needed extra support

Question 80

Why was Alfred Binet actually considerate?

Answer 80

* highlights bad critical thinking of his contemporaries * viewed his test as a practical tool * clear intelligence was too complex to capture in one test or number * intelligence not a single scalable entity * wanted to avoid the logical error of: if something has a name, it must be an entity or a being that has an independent existence of its own * did not want his tool to indefinitely reflect / label a person intelligence

Question 81

Binet put forward 3 cardinal principals that needed to be considered when using / developing his tool. What were they?

Answer 81

1. test scores are for practical purposes -> did not link to a theory and do not define anything innate or permanent -> cannot explicitly link the scale to intelligence 2. scale is rough, empirical guide for identifying children who need support -> cannot use to rank all children 3. low scores indicate support is needed, not that a child is innately incapable

Question 82

Who were Goddard & Terman (-1910s)?

Answer 82

* first to recognise the need for represenatative samples to create norms -> introducing standardisation * built on Godard's work to being Binet's scale on the US * Terman revised scale by adding new items, establishing new age norms -> Stanford-Binet Scale produced * popularised term IQ * IQ = (mental age/chronological age) x 100

Question 83

What does IQ mean?

Answer 83

Intelligence Quotient

Question 84

Who ignored many of Binet's contemporary points and had such an absence of critical thinking?

Answer 84

Goddard and Terman

Question 85

How do you calculate IQ (according to Goddard and Terman)?

Answer 85

(mental age/chronological age) x 100

Question 86

How did Goddard and Terman have an absence of critical thinking?

Answer 86

* ignored Binet's critically considered cardinal principles * Goddard & Terman considered and used the scale as something that captured a single, innate entity which they saw as intelligence * but currently strong theory to say what an entity is and Binet explicitly said his theory could not be used for this -> no expert consensus either * Goddard wanted to use this scale to categorise American society and even use it as part of the immigration process -> ideas Terman was building on * used their ideas and measures to influence American education policy arguing schools needed to be segregated to train efficient workers * Ableism and Racism -> Terman believed African-Amercans, Mexicans, Spanish Indian facilities showed low intelligence using his measure

Question 87

There was no consensus on exactly what intelligence was at this time -> but here they aimed to bring them together to collate what intelligence was. You need to be really clear about what the small differences are when you're making impacts on the real world -> so in the Social Issue of the Journal of Education 1921 they brought together experts to collate expert ideas on what intelligence was. What did they say?

Answer 87

Thorndike: power of good responses from the viewpoint of truth and facts Terman: ability to carry on abstract thinking Thurstone: ability to inhibit instinctive adjustments

Question 88

How many opinions were there about intelligence in 1921?

Answer 88

14

Question 89

Who was Yerkes (-1917)?

Answer 89

-> wasn't building on anything strong because there was no conceptualised theory or anything - instead built on the test * adapted Stanford-Binet scale to support WW1 efforts * adapted 1:1 procedure to a group testing procedure to save time * thought using it within army recruitment would help assignments * developed army alpha and army beta test

Question 90

Who was spearman?

Answer 90

first person to put together a more comprehensive theory of intelligence -> still comes from a Western context though but it's a more formal consideration of a theory that we can build on

Question 91

Sternberg repeated the 1921 exercise in 1986 asking 24 experts. They found that no ones definition offered:

Answer 91

* adaptability * abstract thinking * adjustment to environment * knowledge capacity * independence * originality