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avs 3350 > Importants Quiz 1 > Flashcards

Importants Quiz 1 Flashcards

1
Q

levels of organization

A

cell, tissue, organ, organ system

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2
Q

4 primary tissue types

A

epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous

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3
Q

epithelial

A

inside of mouth, skin

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4
Q

connective

A

tendon, blood, lymph

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5
Q

muscular

A

skeletal, smooth, cardiac

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6
Q

nervous

A

neurons and spinal cord

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7
Q

3 basic germ layers

A

ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm

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8
Q

ectoderm

A

forms skin including mammary glands and neural tissue

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9
Q

mesoderm

A

muscle, connective, plural tissues

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10
Q

endoderm

A

lungs, organs, gut and liver

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11
Q

larger organisms have

A

smaller surface area/volume ratios

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12
Q

advantage and disadvantage of smaller surface are/ volume ratio

A

advantage: better retention of heat
disadvantage: reduced ability to obtain enough nutrients

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13
Q

endocrine vs exocrine

A

exocrine - secretes out of body
endocrine - degrades and absorbs

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14
Q

3 epithelial cells

A

squamous, columnar, cubodial

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15
Q

homeostatically regulated factors of internal environment

A

pH, temperature, volume and pressure, concentration of O2 and CO2

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16
Q

whole body control systems

A

nervous and endocrine

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17
Q

nervous system

A

travels fast (neurons and nerve cells)

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18
Q

endocrine system

A

hormones (inner protein or fat)

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19
Q

categories of organic molecules

A

carbohydrates, pipids, proteins, nucleic acids

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20
Q

carbohydrates

A

monosaccharides, polysaccharides

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21
Q

lipids

A

fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol

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22
Q

proteins

A

composed of amino acids, highly complex 3D structures, peptides are smaller chains of amino acids

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23
Q

nucleic acids

A

composed of nucleotides, DNA and RNA

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24
Q

plasma membrane

A

separates the cells content from the surrounding environment, selectively controls movement of molecules between intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid

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25
Q

nucleus

A

-contains materials for genetic instructions and inheritance
-packaged with histones to form chromosomes
-control center of cell

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26
Q

cytoplasm

A

contains organelles and cytoskeleton dispersed within the cytosol

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27
Q

functions of DNA

A

provides a code of information for RNA and protein synthesis
-serves as a genetic blueprint during cell replication

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28
Q

DNA contains codes for making RNAs and proteins through

A

transcription and translation

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29
Q

transcription

A

gene copied into pre-messenger RNA by RNA polymerase, pre messenger RNA is processed into messenger RNA by removing noncoding sequences and adding signal sequences

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30
Q

translation

A

mRNA leaves the nucleus and delivers a coded message to a ribosomes, ribosomal RNA (rRNA) translates the mRNA code into amino acid sequences, transfer RNA transfers the appropriate amino acids from cytoplasm to ribosome to be added to the protein under construction

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31
Q

all cells in a multicellular eukaryote have

A

the same DNA sequence

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32
Q

different genes are expressed in

A

different tissues or at different times

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33
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A

elaborate, fluid filled membranous system distributed throughout the cytoplasm

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34
Q

rough ER

A

ribosomes bound to outer surface gives rough ER its granular appearance, new proteins synthesized by ribosomes are released into lumen of rough ER

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35
Q

smooth ER

A

no ribosomes, synthesis of lipids, detoxify toxic compounds in liver cells, sarcoplasmic reticulum stores calcium in muscle cells

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36
Q

important minerals

A

calcium, sodium, potassium

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37
Q

ribosomes

A

ribosomal RNA protein complexes, synthesize proteins under direction of nuclear DNA

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38
Q

free ribosomes

A

dispersed throughout the cytosol, synthesize proteins that remain in the cell

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39
Q

bound ribosomes

A

found on membranes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, synthesize proteins that are exported out

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40
Q

golgi complex

A

consists of stacks of flattened, slightly curved sacs (cisternae)

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41
Q

main function of golgi complex

A

modifies proteins and sorts

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42
Q

lysosomes

A

small organelles that vary in size and shape, break down organic molecules, contain hydrolases, enzymes that catalyze hydrolysis reactions, remove worn out organelles

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43
Q

process of endocytosis

A

pinocytosis, receptor mediated endocytosis, phagocytosis

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44
Q

proteosomes

A

large tunnel like strucutures made of proteins, break down internal proteins into amino acids, unwanted proteins are tagged with ubiquitin in order to be recognized by proteosomes

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45
Q

peroxisomes

A

membrane enclosed sacs smaller than lysosomes, contain oxidative enzymes, strip hydrogen from organic molecules, major product is hydrogen peroxide, catalase in peroxisomes decomposes H2O2 into H2O and O2

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46
Q

mitochondria

A

oval shaped organelles enclosed by double membrane, smooth outer membrane, inner membrane has infolding shelves called cristae, inner gel like matrix contains enzymes

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47
Q

how is the mitochondria the power plant of the cell

A

makes 90% of energy that cells need to survive and function

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48
Q

aerobic metabolism in mitochondria relies on

A

O2 to convert energy in food to ATP

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49
Q

aerobic vs anaerobic

A

aerobic requires comsumption of O2, anaerobic pathways can proceed in absense of O2

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50
Q

major steps in generation of ATP

A

glycolysis, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain associated with oxidative phosphorylation

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51
Q

glycolysis

A

chemical process that breaks down glucose into 2 pyruvate molecules, involves 10 sequential reactions, each catalyzed by a separate enzyme, all glycolytic enzymes are found in the cytoplasm, can proceed in anaerobic conditions, releases 2 electrons to form NADH, not very efficient

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52
Q

citric acid cycle

A

8 reactions catalyzed by enzymes, pyruvate produced by glycolysis then converted to acetyl CoA by removinga carbon and forming CO2. acetyl CoA then combines with oxaloacetic acid to form citric acid, 2 carbons released as CO2, 1 atp produced

53
Q

key purpose of citric acid cycle

A

produce hydrogens for entry into electron transport chain

54
Q

electron transport chain

A

electron carrier molecules located in inner mitochondrial membrane, electrons transferred through a chain of reactions with electrons faling to lower energy levels at each step, O2 is final electron acceptor, O2 combines with elecrtons and hydrogen to form H2O
some energy released during transfer is used to synthesize ATP, total ATP yield 30-32 ATPs per molecule of glucose

55
Q

metabolism under anaerobic conditions

A

O2 deficiency forces cells to rely on glycolysis, pyruvate is converted to lactate, lactate accumulates in the tissues and reduces pH, can be converted back to pyruvate

56
Q

tolerance of O2 deficiency varies

A

obligate aerobes, facultative anaerobes, obligate anaerobes

57
Q

vaults

A

hollow, octagonal organelles capable of docking with nuclear pores, transport molecules from (eg mRNA) nucleus to cytoplasm

58
Q

cytosol

A

highly organized, gelatinous mass surrounding the organelles in the cytoplasm

59
Q

functions of cytosol

A

enzymatic regulation of intermediary metabolism, ribosomal protein synthesis, storage of fat and carbohydrates, temporary storage of vesicles

60
Q

centrosome

A

cell’s microtubule organizing center, composed of microtubules radiating outward from two centrioles, microtubles are highways for transport of chromosomes and vesicles, form mitotic spindle during cell division, cilia and flagella in some cells

61
Q

cytoskeleton

A

provides an intracellular scaffolding to support and organize cell’s components and control their movements

62
Q

microtubules

A

maintain cell shape and are important in cell movements

63
Q

microfilaments

A

part of the cellular contractile systems and as mechanical stiffeners

64
Q

intermediate filaments

A

maintain cell structure and resist mechanical stress

65
Q

cells held together by

A

cell adhesion molecules, extracellular matrix secreted mostly by fibroblasts that hold cells together, specialized cell junctions

66
Q

specialized cell junctions

A

desmosomes, tight junctions, gap junctions

67
Q

desmosomes (adhering junctions)

A

anchor together two closely adjacent cells through cell adhesion molecule (cadherins), abundant in tissues subject to stretching

68
Q

tight junctions

A

join sheets of epithelial tissue, membranes of 2 cells join together, prevent materials from pass between cells, IMPERMEABLE

69
Q

gap junctions

A

adjacent cells are linked by small connecting tunnels (connexons), movement on ions through gap junctions transmit electrical activity, enable synchronized contraction of muscle, COMMUNICATION JUNCTIONS

70
Q

plasma membrane

A

encloses the intracellular contents, selectively permits specific substances to enter or leave the cell, responds to changes in cell’s environment

71
Q

plasma membrane is a

A

fluid lipid bilayer embedded with proteins

72
Q

phospholipids

A

most abundant membrane component, head contains charged phosphate group (hydrophilic), 2 nonpolar fatty acid tails (hydrophobic), assemble into lipid bilyaer with hydrophobic tails in center and hydrophilic heads in contact with water, fluid structure not held together by chemical bonds

73
Q

cholesterol

A

placed between phospholipids to prevent crystallization of fatty acid chains, helps stabilize phospholipids position, provides rigidity especially in cold temps, cold induced rigidity is countered in poikilotherms by enriching membrane lipids with polyunsaturated fatty acids

74
Q

membrane proteins

A

integral proteins are embedded in lipid bilayer, have hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions, transmembrane proteins extend through the entire thickness of the membrane, peripheral proteins found on inner or outer surface of membrane, polar molecules and anchored by weak chemical bonds to polar parts of integral proteins or phospholipids

75
Q

2 models of membrane structure

A

fluid mosaic model (membrane proteins float freely in a sea of lipids) and membrane skeleton fence model (mobility of membrane proteins is restricted by the cytoskeleton)

76
Q

specialized functions of membrane proteins

A
  1. channels
  2. carriers
  3. receptors
  4. docking marker acceptors
  5. enzymes
  6. cell adhesion molecules
  7. self identify markers
77
Q

membrane carbohydrates

A

located only on outer surface of membrane, short chain carbohydrates bound to membrane proteins (glycoproteins) or lipids (glycolipids), important roles in self recognition and cell to cell interactions

78
Q

plasma membrane is _____ permeable

A

selectively

79
Q

permeability depends on

A

high lipid solubility and small size

80
Q

force is needed to produce the movement of particles across the membrane

A

passive - doesnt require cell to expend energy
active - require cellular energy (ATP)

81
Q

diffusion

A

passive, higher concentration to lower, equilibrium reached when no concentration gradient and no net diffusion

82
Q

Fick’s law of diffusion

A

rate of which diffusion occurs depends on
1. concentration gradient
2. permeability
3. surface area
4. molecular weight
5. distance
6. temperature

83
Q

unassisted membrane transport

A

movement of ions across the membrane is affected by electrical charge. difference in charge produces an electrical gradient, electrical gradient passively induces ion movement (conduction), only ions that can permeate plasma membrane can conduct down this gradient

84
Q

electrochemical gradient

A

existence of electrical gradient and concentration gradient

85
Q

osmosis

A

water moves across a membrane from lower solute to higher solute concentration, driving force = concentration gradient, hydrostatic pressure opposes osmosis , osmotic pressure is pressure required to stop osmotic flow, stops when theres a balance of tendency of osmosis and hydrostatic pressure, osmotic pressure proportional to concentration of nonpenetrating solute

86
Q

isotonic

A

same concentration of nonpenetrating solutes as in normal cells, cell volume constant

87
Q

hypotonic

A

lower solute concentration, cell volume increases, maybe lysis

88
Q

hypertonic

A

higher solute concentration, cell volume decreases, causes crenation

89
Q

phospholipid bilayer impermeable to

A

large poorly lipid soluble molecules and small charged molecules

90
Q

3 assisted membrane transport

A

channel, carrier mediated, vesicular

91
Q

channel transport

A

transmembrane proteins form narrow channels, highly selective, permit passages or ions or water, gated channels can be open or closed, leak channels always open, faster than carrier mediated

92
Q

carrier mediated transport

A

transmembrane proteins that can undergo reversible changes in shape, binding sites can be exposed to either side of membrane, transport small water soluble substances, facilitated diffusion or active transport are carrier mediated

93
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

passive carrier mediated transport from high to low, doesnt need energy, molecule attaches on binding site of protein carrier, carrier protein changes conformation, exposing bond molecule to other side of the membrane, bound molecule detaches from carrier, carrier returns to OG state

94
Q

active transport

A

moves a substance against its concentration gradient, requires energy, primary active transport - energy directly required, ATP split to power transport, secondary active transport - ATP not directly used, carrier uses energy stored in form of ion concentration gradient build by primary active transport

95
Q

Na+ - K+ ATPase pump

A

pumps 3 Na+ out of cell for every 2 K+ in, splits ATP for energy, phosphorylation induces change in shape of transport protein, maintains Na+ and K+ concentration gradients across plasma membrane, helps regulate cell volume

96
Q

secondary active transport

A

simultaneous transport of nutrient molecule and ion across plasma membrane by cotransport protein, nutrient molecule transported against concentration gradient, driven by simultaneous transport of an ion along its concentration graident

97
Q

characteristics of carrier mediated transport systems

A

specificity, saturation, competition

98
Q

specificity

A

each carrier protein specialized to transport specific substances

99
Q

saturation

A

limit to the amount of a substance that a carrier can transport in a GIVEN TIME

100
Q

competition

A

closely related compounds may compete for same carrier

101
Q

vesicular transport

A

transport between icf and ecf wrapped in membrane bound vesicles, rate of endocytosis and exocytosis must be balanced, caveolae may help transport substances and cell signaling

102
Q

endocytosis

A

incorporates outside substances into cell,

103
Q

exocytosis

A

releases substances into ECF

104
Q

direct intercellular communication

A

gap junctions, transient direct linkup of surface markers, nanotubes

105
Q

indirect intercelllular communication

A

intercellular chemical messengers, synthesized by specialized cells to serve a designated purpose, bind with specific receptors on target cells

106
Q

categories of chemical messengers

A

paracrines, neurotransmitters, hormones, neurohormones, pheromones, cytokines

107
Q

paracrines

A

local chemical messengers whose effect is exerted only on neighboring cells

108
Q

neurotransmitters

A

used by neurons which communicate directly with the cells they innervate

109
Q

hormones

A

long range chemical messengers that are secreted into the circulation by endocrine glands

110
Q

neurohormones

A

hormones released into the circulation by neurosecretory neurons

111
Q

pheromones

A

chemical signals released into the environment to reach sensory cells of other animals

112
Q

cytokines

A

regulatory peptides made by almost any cell, generally involved in development and immunity

113
Q

signal transduction

A

extracellular chemical messengers bind with receptors to trigger a biochemical chain of events inside the target cell, process by which incoming signals are conveyed to target cell’s interior for execution, lipophilic and lipophobic

114
Q

lipophilic

A

extracellular messengers, pass through the target cell’s plasma membrane to bind to intracellular receptors
1. produce second messenger or 2. alter gene transcription

115
Q

lipophobic

A

extracellular messengers, cannot pass through the target cell’s plasma membrane, bind with surface membrane receptors,
1. open or close specific membrane channels to regulate ion movement or 2. activate an enzyme that phosphorylates a cell protein or 3. transfer the signal to an intracellular second messenger

116
Q

opening and closing of membrane receptor channels

A

chemically gated, voltage gated, mechnically gated

117
Q

chemically gated

A

respond to binding of an extracellular chemical messenger to a specific membrane receptor

118
Q

voltage gated

A

respond to changes in electrical current in plasma membrane

119
Q

mechnically gated

A

respond to stretching and other mechanical deformation

120
Q

phosphorylating enzymes

A

protein kinase phosphorylates a target cell protein, phosphorylated protein changes shape and function, activated protein kinase sites phosphorylate cytoplasmic proteins to lead to the cellular response tyrosine kinase phosphorylates its own tyrosine residues (autophosphorylation)

121
Q

G protein coupled membrane receptors

A

inactive G protein on inner surface of plasma membrane contains a,b,c subunits with a GDP bound to the a subunit, hormone binds with its receptor, receptor attaches to G protein releasing GDP and attaching GTP to the a subunit, activated a subunits links with an effector protein in the membrane and alters its activity

122
Q

cyclic AMP second messenger GPCR pathway

A

binding of hormone to its receptor activates a G protein, activated a subunit links with adenylyl cyclase in the membrane, activated adenylyl cyclase converts intracellular ATP to cyclic AMP, cyclic AMP activates protein kinase A, protein kinase A phosphorylates intracellular proteins, leading to the cellular reponse

123
Q

why do multiple steps exist in signal transduction pathway

A

trying to correct and amplify signal

124
Q

second messenger system

A

shared by many cell types, multiple steps lead to AMPLIFICATION of initial signal, receptors are subject to regulation (downregulation or upregulation of receptor number), drugs and toxins alter communication pathways (antagonists and agonists_

125
Q

antagonists vs agonists

A

antagonists - block a step, agonists activate a step

126
Q

resting membrane potential

A

due to differences in distribution and permeability of key ions, NA is greater in ECF, K is greater in ICF, concentration differences maintained by Na-K_ATPase pump, differnt solubilities in cell water and affinity for cell proteins, large negatively charged proteins (A-) are concentrated in ICF, Na - K pump transports 3 Na out for every 2 K in, membrane has more K lead channels than Na leak channels

127
Q

equilibrium potential

A

membrane potential at which there is no net movement of the ion across the membrane, concentration gradient balanced by opposing electrical gradient, greater the permeability of the plasma membrane for a given ion, greater the tendency for that ion to drive the membrane potential toward the ions own equilibrium potential, membrane more permeable to K than to Na, so membrane potential is closer to K equilbirium potential

128
Q

membrane potential maintained at

A

steady state, passive leaks of K out of cell and Na into cell balanced by N K pump

129
Q

Na/ K pump main functions

A

maintain resting membrane potential, control cell volume, provide concentration gradient for glucose and protein transport

avs 3350 (2 decks)

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