Individual differences Flashcards
(203 cards)
1
Q
What personality characteristics have shown a relationship to academic performance, what is this effect? (in Bratko et al 2006)
A
Conscientiousness - Major factor in predicting performance, leads to organisation, discipline and motivation
Neuroticism - Conflicting results, students may study harder but perform worse in exams
Extraversion - Conflicting results, may be less worried about the exam and so perform better, but study less hard.
2
Q
What did Poropat (2009) find about personality and academic performance?
A
Agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness predicted performance.
Only conscientiousness predicted it independent of intelligence.
3
Q
What did Csikszentmihalyi and Getzels (1971) find out about creativity?
A
Major feats of creativity involved solving problems that had not even been conceptualised as problems by others.
Those who spent time considering possibilities (ie. subjects of painting) were rated as higher in originality and aesthetic appeal.
4
Q
What is the drawing production test?
A
Psychological test for creativity, given shapes and have to make that into a drawing.
Rated through criteria
5
Q
What did Dollinger et al (2004) find in their study?
A
Dollinger et al (2004) found that openness was related to performance on the drawing production test and the thematic apperception test.
6
Q
What happens in the Thematic Apperception Test?
A
Participants are given an image and have to produce a story behind it, this is then assessed through criteria.
7
Q
What did George and Zhou (2001) find in their study?
A
Difference in Algorithmic tasks (clear way to accomplish task) and Heuristic tasks (vague, open way to complete the problem).
Openness associated with creativity in heuristic tasks
Monitoring associated with lower creativity when monitored by a supervisor, in conscientious people,
8
Q
Results of the relationship between creativity and authoritarianism?
A
One study found using the RWA scale that creativity was negatively correlated with authoritarianism (creativity test of divergent thinking- tel-aviv-creativity test).
9
Q
What is intrinsic motivation in creativity? Sternberg 2006?
A
The fact that individuals are motivated to achieve according to themselves and their own decisions. Sternberg 2006 said individuals find ways to make their own work more interesting.
10
Q
What did Mackinnon (1965) discover?
A
Sorted architects into three groups, ordered from most creative to least. The most creative architects had characteristics of aggression, autonomy and independence.
The architects who were more creative saw the ideal architect as those who were driven by an inner personal artistic vision
Less creative were more concerned with professional standards (common standards within the profession)
It appears the more creative are self accepting and self actualising, they are imaginative
11
Q
What does the fact that conscientious people who are observed tend to perform less creatively mean?
A
Further evidence that creativity comes from an expression of self, self actualising, because when pressured to perform under social norms (being observed) perform less well.
12
Q
What did Gardner (1993) discover? Design?
A
In a study of 7 highly creative individuals found a theme of marginality - outside of social norms e.g. freud was jewish.
13
Q
What is the evidence of psychoticism and creativity (argued by Eysenck)?
A
Stavridou and Furnham (1996) used Wallach-Kogan creativity test, (name all the… alternative use of objects, round things, for example) found correlation between psychoticism and divergent thinking.
14
Q
Eysenck’s argument for psychoticism-Divergent thinking link?
A
Argues that the creative scientist needs a resilient, self-reliant, dominant, aggressive and self-centred mind to make their ideas triumph over orthodoxy.
15
Q
Theories as to the different thinking pattern of creative persons?
A
Lower levels of latent inhibition - lower ability to screen out irrelevant ideas.
increased availability of uncommon or distant associations (ideas out of the ordinary)
Martindale (2007) found ‘conceptual-primordial cognition’ primordial thinking is regressing to a more primitive mode of thought, ie. more in common with dreaming, which may be more creative.
16
Q
Barron (1993) suggested what?
A
Over inclusiveness (i.e. primordial cognition) is not enough to be creativity, need also the ability to focus those ideas.
17
Q
Freud’s basic view of the human mind?
A
Biological basis for his explanation
Determinism: The extent to which our characters and personalities are determined by preceding events or natural law
Pessimistic view: Life is about avoiding pain
Idiographic approach: looking at individuals
18
Q
Fechner’s ideas that influenced Freud? What is the name that Freud came up for this?
A
Organisms have ‘energies’ and they need to be kept in balance - homeostasis
Psychophysics - Freud, organisms try to discharge energy, and this is experienced as pleasure.
19
Q
What did freud term the ‘energy’ in the nervous system?
A
Q
20
Q
How did Freud view the role of the nervous system in dealing with the instincts or stimuli that reach it?
A
He viewed the nervous system as having a role in reducing this stimulation.
21
Q
Freud’s architecture of the human mind?
A
Id: Innate, irrational, biologically gratification orientated (a newborn).
Ego: Learned, rational, reality orientated. Will learn the realistic way to satisfy the demands of the id.
Superego: Moral compass, generated after oedipal complex is resolved.
22
Q
Freud’d psychosexual stages?
A
Oral: 0-1.5
Anal: 1.5-3
Phallic: 3-5
Genital: 12-18 Adult sexuality development
23
Q
Freud’s argument for the formation of symptoms according to instincts and desires.
A
libidinal desires are frustrated, so the pt regresses back to an earlier stage when the desires are satisfied.
The ego however disapproves of this desire as it cannot be satisfied and this leads to feelings of self-loathing
This leads to ambiguity of feeling or mixture of pleasure and disgust.
24
Q
Freud’s defence mechanisms?
A
Repression - Don’t acknowledge at all
Projection - We don’t want to acknowledge that we are this way, and so we project that on to others to deal with it
Sublimation - Channel our desires into an output (artists).
Reaction formation - We deny a feeling and act in the opposite direction (woman who couldn’t leave her mother)
25
Freud'd methods for analysis?
1. Dream interpretation - symbols
2. Free associations - Association with words (the first thing that comes into your mind) If a pt hesitates you can see there is come kind of repression?
3. Parapraxes - Freudian slips
4. Idiographic approaches
26
Freud's Oedipus complex?
Males:
In love with mother and jealous of father (rival for mothers affections).
Fears father is going to castrate him.
Conflict is resolved and instead of fearing father, sees him as a role model.
27
Freud's 'Death Instinct'?
Freud argued that the ultimate goal of life is death - we all die. The ultimate reduction of stimulation is the cessation of stimulation
28
Freud's therapy goals? His explanation of mechanism?
To replace abnormal unhappiness, with normal unhappiness - to have as much as others. To be capable of enjoyment and work. To understand essentially.
By making the unconscious desires conscious, you can disarm them of harmful content, help the ego conquest the id.
29
Some evaluation of Freud's psychoanalytic success?
Shedler (2010) success of psychoanalysis is comparable to other techniques.
psychoanalysis also has similar aims to some other therapies, e.g. CBT gains awareness of previously implicit feelings.
30
What did Bruno Bettelheim argue, referring to psychoanalysis?
Fairy tales embody the ideas of psychoanalysis. The id ego and superego.
31
What did Karl Popper argue about Freud'd ideas?
That it is conscience. It cannot be falsified by observation.
A theory that can explain everything is a theory that explains nothing
32
How did Jung differ from Freud?
We are not just driven by basic biological drives (sex, hunger) Can also be driven by more sophisticated drives.
33
What did Jung and Kant believe about the mind at birth?
Did not believe that the mind was blank at birth, it has basic structures, a basic architecture.
This was called a collective unconscious, common to all human beings. The structures are common to all, are filled by different things
34
One bit of evidence Jung put forward for the collective unconscious?
Myths and tales have archetypal structures common to all - wise old man, young strong brave man. This represents the structure.
35
Jung's structure of the human mind?
Collective unconscious
Personal unconscious (freudian)
Consciousness - Ego
Persona (how we appear to others), Shadow (the side we do not show)
Animus and anima (we all have male and female characterises animus is male and vice versa) in males the animus is dominant (at least in their persona)
36
Jung's structure of personality?
Persona
Shadow - darker side, consisting of repressed material.
Anima - female
Animus - male
Self - the potential we all have to achieve the unique
37
What is individuation?
Jung's idea to integrate all the aspects of the personality together in balance, self-regulating system.
38
Jung's personality types?
Introversion and extraversion. - Present in all (and so must have biological basis)
He also though there were four different functions to interpret the world:
Thinking - Intellectual, rational connections. True or false.
Feeling - Good/bad, Pleasant/Unpleasant
Sensing - Basic perceptual experience
Intuiting - Meaning or general atmosphere. Essential core, not details.
39
Jung's approach to therapy?
From clinical experience, more collaborative. Focus on the imbalances of the personality and Jung's personality types. More concerned with the future than the past (freud) goals in the future.
Teleological rather than deterministic.
Can achieve this through individuation.
40
Evaluation of Jung's approach?
They have been influential and have similarities to other historic disciplines (religion and spirituality).
Has led to development of tests such as Myers-Briggs
However has quite a ambiguous broad definition and so is difficult to scientifically disprove (and therefore prove) - nonscience. e.g. when do archetypes stop, wasn't precise enough.
41
What did humanistic psychologists, like Jean Paul Sartre, argue?
Jean Paul Sartre:
- Existentialism: Freedom and autonomy, we have the choice to make our own choices, they are not predetermined by instincts.
- This is a large responsibility and we can mess up.
- Everyone is different - phenomenology.
42
What was Abraham Maslow's general ideas, what did he study?
Disagreed with the negative emphasis of psychoanalysis.
Thought that there was too much emphasis on mental pathology in psychoanalysis.
Studied self-actualisers. Einstein for example.
Decided we have drives on positive things (Maslow's hierarchy of needs).
43
Maslow's theories on motives?
Argued that instincts are not all or nothing:
- We have universal basic needs, but others are more socially determined
Deficiency motives:
- Like hunger, are negative motives, once they are fulfilled we are not motivated by it (psychoanalysis is concerned with these)
Growth motives:
- e.g. curiosity is a positive motive, and does not necessarily disappear when it is fulfilled
44
Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
Self Actualisation
Esteem
Social
Safety
Pysiological needs
We work from the bottom up, once one is satisfied we concern ourselves with the next level up.
45
What did Maslow discover from his study of self-actualisation?
They are accepting of themselves
Perceive things more honestly and correctly (not distorted by defence mechanisms)
More motivated by achieving their own potential than they are of success in the eyes of others.
Have more peak experiences
46
What are peak experiences?
Transient moments of self-actualizing. Cannot seek them but can set up so theta they are more likely.
Absorption in the activity. Not thinking about anything. Mindfulness.
47
Evaluation of Maslow's ideas?
Can be hard to test (self admitted by Maslow).
People agree on some ring of truth
Mittleman (1991) suggested that self-actualization is difficult to measure but is similar to openness to experience.
48
General views of Carl Rogers?
Future goal oriented
Client Centred therapy in contrast to a passive medical model
Phenomenological approach in that he wanted to understand the clients own perception of reality.
49
Carl Rogers view of Actualisation?
He believed that the organism (real self) strives to organise, maintain and enhance experience
The needs the organism (real self) are sometimes in conflict with our self-concept (what we perceive ourselves as)
Argues that the 'conditions of worth' emphasised by society can cause conflict between the two selves
50
Carl rogers approach to therapy?
Client Centred:
Non-judgemental. The client is free to express whatever he/she like, in order to remove conditions of worth.
The goal is to integrate the two selves in order to achieve actualisation
It is, however, up to the client to solve their own problems.
51
Evaluation of Carl Rogers, client centred approach to therapy? What is the Q sort technique?
Content analysis indicated more positive self statements are achieved following therapy.
Q sort technique is a technique where the ptp sort phrases according to their real selves and their ideal selves. It is found that the two selves seem to become more similar to each each other through the course of therapy.
52
What are traits and what are states?
Traits: perceived as predispositions to behaviour, leads to similar behaviour in a variety of situations.
States: A momentary behaviour.
53
What is the Nomothetic approach to personality?
Focusses on large groups of people and using statistical techniques to uncover the dimensions of personality.
Largely concerned with the discovery of personally traits.
54
Gordon Allport's Views?
Started off being influenced by freud.
However he was more concerned with the conscious and present motivations.
He differentiated between healthy and unhealthy personality.
55
Behaviourist view on personality traits?
Did not think personality traits existed.
He thought that behaviour did not represent something 'inside' people, as traits seemed to suggest, but that was just their behaviour.
56
Allport's view of personality traits?
He defended them. He thinks that personality is something and it lies behind specific actions within the individual. Suggested that psychophysical systems are traits.
57
What is the Lexical hypothesis? How was it developed?
The idea that language as an implicit theory, it allows us to interpret people. The study of personality is possible through the analysis if language.
Allport produced a 4500 word list of words used to describe people. Cattell Used factor analysis to analyse this. Eysenck supported this.
58
What did Cattell develop from factor analysis of Allport's word database?
16PF - his 16 personality factors in a questionnaire, mostly yes/no questions.
59
How did Eysenck develop Cattell's personality factor questionnaire, and produce his own theories?
Came up with two basic dimensions of personality:
- Extraversion vs introversion
- Neuroticism (on a scale)
EPI - His questionnaire.
Later developed psychoticism - egocentric, aggressive, impulsive
60
What was Eysenck's explanation for personality factors?
Suggested the Ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) in the brainstem had the job of balancing excitatory and inhibitory mechanisms.
Argued the reticular-cortical system was responsible for introversion/extraversion:
- Someone with high ARAS basal activity will withdraw from social situation so as not to over-stimulate.
- Someone with low ARAS will seek stimulation
The same applies for neuroticism but in the reticulo-limbic system.
61
Evidence to support Eysenck's biological ARAS system explanation for personality traits?
Campbell & Hawley (1982):
High extraverted students preferred to study in a space where social activity was more likely to occur.
Geen (1984):
Extraverts preferring higher levels of noise when studying.
Stelmack and Hoolihan (1995):
P300 as a biological measure of arousal is higher in introverts - more arousal
62
What did the humanistic psychologists such as Maslow argue creativity was the result of? How did this contrast with Eysenck's views?
Creativity was the result of good mental health.
Eysenck argues that it was included in the psychoticism personality trait.
63
What is the five factor model? How was this developed?
Costa & McCrae (1992) agued for five personality traits:
Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism (OCEAN)
- Others earlier also actually reduced Cattell's database to five. (Types and Christal)
- Innate structures (born with)
- Developed a questionnaire.
64
The HEXACO model? (Ashton & Lee)
```
Honest-Humility
Emotionality
eXtraversion
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Openness to experience
```
Sought to give biological explanations (evolutionary theory). They argue all the charecteristics have some kind of evolutionary effect.
65
Evaluations of Trait theory?
You can map almost every personality construct onto the big five
However cannot derive every personality construct from the big five
It is data driven, not theory driven. Unusual for science, e.g. you don't start with data you start with a theory.
66
Sir Frances Galton's view on intelligence?
Made up of (i) practical question and (ii) theoretical questions.
Thought intelligence was hereditary
He also set up the Anthropometric Laboratory: measured factors such as head size, reaction time and sensory acuity.
67
What are elementary cognitive tasks?
Simple tasks (in terms of mental operation e.g. reaction time) that do not require prior learning.
68
What studies have reported correlations between elementary cognitive tasks and intelligence?
Cooper 2002, (reaction time).
Dear and Carrol (1997) Inspection time and IQ.
69
Alfred Binet's view on intelligence?
Intelligence test items that became progressively more complicated. Developed the idea of a 'mental age' what level of intelligence they were at.
Developed the first formal test of intelligence. It was good at identifying struggling students but not at exceeding students.
He did not think a simple number could properly sum up people's level of intelligence.
70
Who developed the original mass intelligence tests?
Robert Yerkes. Developed alpha (literate) and beta (illiterate) intelligence tests in the US army during the first world war. Used factor analysis.
71
The work of Spearman on intelligence?
There was a correlation between performance on different intelligence tests - developed the idea of 'g' - general intelligence. Thought g was a heritable inherent factor.
Also the task specific abilities is 's' - specific intelligence
72
One specific test developed to test 'g' ? Problems with this?
WAIS - Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.
Will also be taking into account the amount of schooling you will have had.
73
A test designed to test pure 'g'?
Ravens progressive matrices - minimise the effect of cultural and linguistic influences. (UKCAT style abstract reasoning shapes)
74
What did Thurstone argue in terms of intelligence?
'g' is the outcome of seven different primary abilities:
```
Associative memory
Number
Perceptual speed
Reasoning
Space
verbal Comprehension
Word fluency
```
75
Guildford's theory regarding intelligence?
Didn't acknowledge 'g'. Considered 3 main processes:
Operations: types of mental operations
Contents: mental material we possess
Products: The form in which information is stored e.g. classes, units.
76
Cattell's theory of intelligence?
Two components make up 'g':
- Crystalline intelligence (Gc): acquired knowledge, factual knowledge, vocabulary.
- Fluid intelligence (Gf): abstract reasoning, seeing patterns and relationships
Gc increases over lifetime, Gf however stabilises in early adulthood.
77
What did Gardner argue in terms of intelligence?
7 Different forms of intelligence:
```
Linguistic
Logical-mathematical
Spatial
Musical
Bodily-kinasthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
```
Later added Naturalist: ability to distinguish between natural phenomena
Less scholastic than Thurstone.
78
Gardner's criteria for a form of intelligence?
1. Potential of isolation by brain damage
2. Evolutionary history and plausibility e..g identifying plants
3. Identifiable core operation or set of operations
4. Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system e.g. sheet music
5. A distinct developmental history and definable expert performances. About it being developed as people grow up.
6. The existence of idiot savants and prodigies (idiot savant is very good at one thing but bad at others
7. Support from experimental psychological tasks
8. Support from psychometric findings
- Doesn't have to fulfil all criteria, it is a matter of judgement.
79
Does physics as an example constitute an intelligence?
No, it is an example of a domain
80
Does Moral intelligence count as an intelligence - according to Gardner?
No, all intelligence should be free of morality - that is a choice of how you use intelligence.
81
Sternberg's views concerning culture and intelligence?
Has to be considered within it's cultural context. Different behaviour is considered intelligent in different cultures.
Intelligence is about achieving a state of well-being within one's cultural context.
82
Murtagh (1985)'s findings concerning intelligence?
Depends on context - grocery shopping and pen and pencil tests
83
Findings concerning personality and intelligence?
Bartels et al (2012)
Measured IQ using a variety of measures (WAIS, Ravens matrices)
Personality using NEO_FFI
Correlation between intelligence and openness (and lesser agreeableness)
84
When is it right to be concerned of a delay in motor development?
Only in serious delay.
85
If a baby is a late reacher does that mean it will crawl later?
No, it is not necessarily sequential in that way. Children acquire skills in individual ways
86
Gessel (1954) and his view of motor development?
That the rudimentary abilities are phylogenetic: come in a strict successive order, automatically, and resistant to environmental influences.
87
Dennis (1960) and his observations concerning Iranian orphanages?
Babies lay on their backs and did not have any toys, this caused delays in development:
- Did not move independently until 2 yrs
- 'Scooted' rather than crawled (due to time on backs)
- Only 15% walking alone by age 3-4
88
White and Held (1966) and their research concerning environmental influences, specifically visual information?
White and Held (1966) had three groups:
- No visual stimulation
- Moderate amount
- Lots
The group most advanced was the moderate: environment must influence development, pushing infants (lots of visual stimulation) undermined development.
89
Venetsanou & Kambas (2010) research regarding factors that affect motor performance development?
Socio-economic status: toys, space
Mother: diet, experience.
Siblings
Schooling
Socio-cultural context
Intervention movement programmes
90
Problem for generalisation regarding human motor development research?
WEIRD
```
Western
Educated
Industrialised
Rich
Democratic society
```
Only 5% of world population
91
Implications of the WEIRD culture regarding research conclusions in human motor development?
Cant assess social and cultural effects on development
Norms are at best unproven and may be incorrect
Cannot generalise our norms to other cultures, we attribute differences to biology when it may be cultural.
92
What is the back to sleep campaign, what were the results?
Campaign to get babies to be put on their backs to sleep:
- Reduced SIDS by 40%
- Results in delayed milestones concerning crawling , sitting and rolling, although daylight 'tummy time' can reduce this.
93
Conclusions and implications of Karasik et al (2015) study concerning independent sitting time cross-culturally.
Some cultures appear to have different ranges (Kenya and Cameroon, some of the largest).
However within-group differences nearly always surpass between group differences: cannot generalise a whole culture.
94
Evidence concerning early motor development and later cognitive outcomes?
Murray et al (2007):
Some differences found, however when excluding lowest 5% and those with learning difficulties this effect is not pronounced.
95
What individual differences contribute to differences in motor performance?
Body type
Age
Gender
Experience
Genes
Environment (SES, support, opportunities)
Personality (motivation/stress)
Abilities
96
What are personal abilities, regarding motor performance?
Abilities are the collection of equipment a person has at their disposal determining whether or not they will excel at a given motor task.
97
Differences in abilities and skills?
Abilities: e.g. visual or attentional abilities
- Stable and enduring
- genetically determined
- Doesn't change much with practice or experience
- Underlying capabilities that support skills
Skills e.g. driving a car
- Chiefly developed through practice
- Dependent on relevant abilities and the practice.
98
What is the general motor hypothesis?
The hypothesis that there is a singular global ability that is the basis for all skills.
Drowatzky & Zuccato showed this was not so. There are some tasks that are related, but others that are not.
99
What is the specificity hypothesis, in sport performance?
Originated by Franklin Henry (late 1950s) - hypothesised there are many specific abilities.
All types of motor performance are based on thousands of specific abilities that are independent of each other.
Two tasks that appear similar should have no relationship
Drowatzky & Zuccato also shows this is not true. There are some tasks that are related, but others that are not.
100
The more accepted theory regarding motor abilities?
Fleishman (1964) Grouped abilities. There are a few independent abilities, that all tasks are based on.
101
Ability categories as proposed by Fleishman (1964)?
Perceptual Motor:
- Control Precision
- Rate Control
- Manual Dexterity
- Finger dexterity
- Aiming
- Reaction time
Physical Proficiency:
- Explosive strength
- Dynamic Strength
- Extent Flexibility
- Balance with visual cues
- Gross body co-ordination
- Stamina
102
Are abilities at the start of performance the same needed further along in expertise?
Not necessarily at all. Some may, some may not.
103
Why are motor performance battery tests not effective predictor tools? (3)
1. Abilities we have not discovered
2. Not easy to measure known abilities
3. Many other confounding variables predict performance at a particular time.
104
Difference in male and female performance in motor tasks?
Men outperform women in most, however women may be better at:
- Sensory discrimination (e.g. colour)
- Rapid manipulation (card sorting, tapping aiming)
- Inverted alphabet task
However, may be due to:
- Societal pressure
- Body size and strength
Also within group variability is wide.
105
Effect of age on motor performance?
Reaction time, rapid arm movements, tracking, postural control and speed all decline as we get old.
106
Three factors that show how stable a performance is?
Diversity - variation within a group
Dispersion - Range of individuals scores from their mean
Consistency - Variability over testing sessions
107
What declines more as we age, simple or choice reaction time?
Simple, choice does not seem too as much
108
What did Ericsson et al (1993) propose regarding practice in motor performance? What is the evidence regarding this?
Proposed that practice makes perfect (e.g. do an activity 10,000 times to become an expert)
Evidence for practice makes perfect in musical instruments may prove true
This does not hold true regarding sports performance, however it will improve things.
109
Constraints regarding sport performance development?
Coach - structure and content of learning
Parents - Financial and emotional support, initiate involvement
Culture
Relative age
Size of birthplace: optimal size is small (1000 - 500,000 people)
110
Evidence of genetic (twin study) in terms of sport performance?
William and gross (1980)
22 identical twins,
41 non-identical twins
- More variation in non-identical twins
- Heritability effects low in the early part of learning but stronger in later parts of learning.
- Environmental variation had the most effect on early practice.
111
Theory regarding the ACE gene in sorting performance?
```
D = deletion
I = Insertion
```
DD mutation associated with muscle cell growth and power i.e. sprinting and strength
II mutation linked with endurance
Long distance running, low O2 climbs
112
Current trends regarding genes and sport?
Attempts to identify single gene variants that may contribute to different abilities
Genetic profiling to match suitability to positions and training specificity
Gene/cell doping, artificial genetic information insertion
113
Personality factors affecting sports?
Athletes vs non athletes:
Higher on:
- Extraversion
- Openness
Lower on:
Neuroticism
Elite vs non elite:
Higher on:
- Extraversion
- Agreeableness
- Conscientiousness
Lower on:
- Neuroticism
114
Evidence regarding personalty factors and sport from Aidman and Bekerman (2001)?
Split Aussie rules players up: Seniors, Wingers and Reserves.
The ability level was what determined players to play at the elite level, but this needs to be complemented by achievement striving and self-discipline to be a permanent senior player.
115
Personality factors that affect team and individual sports?
Extraversion - increased likelihood of team sports and high risk sports.
Conscientiousness - increased likelihood of individual sports and low risk sports.
116
Opposition to the evidence surrounding sports personality research?
Vealey (2002) - yielded no useful findings
Gill and Williams (2008) 'most scholars see little value in global personality measures
Davis (1991) personality traits are not a strong predictor of athletic performance
117
Commonly overlooked principles in terms of variation in findings regarding personality and sport?
- Long term nature of personality influences
- Personality dimensions relate to behaviours associated with sport rather than their outcome (e.g. how well you prepared)
- Moderating effects rather than direct effects
118
Findings of Aidman (2007) regarding the long term effects of personality on sport?
Profiled junior elite team who won national championship.
Personality variables only weakly associated with performance at the time, however strong association 7 years later - predicted performance
119
Findings of Allen et al (2011) regarding coping strategies?
Athletes with high levels of extraversion openness and agreeableness used a greater proportion of emotion-focused coping strategies.
Athletes with low levels of openness, or high levels of neuroticism used avoidance based coping strategies.
120
Moderting effects of anger and extraversion on athletes/
Extraverted athletes perform better with a crowd
Anger benefits sport performance for athletes with high levels of extraversion.
121
Practical applications concerning personality effects on sport?
# Choose people to fit the team
Identify athletes in need of more support
Targeted coaching
Design appropriate control strategies
Find the right coach
122
State and Trait anxiety? Effects on each other?
State: anxiety experienced in a particular situation
Trait: predisposition to experience anxiety
Higher trait anxiety means you are more likely to experience higher state anxiety.
123
The two dimensions of anxiety (both state and trait)?
Somatic and cognitive.
Somatic: physical component
Cognitive: mental component (worry, negative thoughts)
124
The Multi-dimensional Anxiety Theory? Martens et al (1990) concerning the effect of cognitive and somatic anxiety on performance?
Cognitive anxiety inversely proportional to performance (neg effect)
Somatic anxiety has an inverted U relationship (normal distribution). Increase up to an optimal level and then a drop off.
125
The Catastrophe model? (Fazey & Hardy 1988) Concerning the effect of anxiety on performance?
Physiological arousal is related to performance in the normal distribution only when cognitive state anxiety is low.
If cognitive anxiety Is high then there is a rapid decline of performance following the optimum level
126
What is Hanins individual zone of optimal functioning theory?
Every athlete has their own optimal functioning zone according to state anxiety.
127
Factors that may affect state anxiety or arousal in the interactional approach?
Personal factors: State anxiety, Self-esteem.
Situational factors: Event importance, uncertainty.
128
Different views of motivation?
Trait centred: motivation behaviour is a function of personality, needs and goals
Situational: Motivation determined primarily by situation i.e. what will you try in a seemingly hopeless situation.
Interaction between the two
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Findings of Sorrentino and Shepard (1978) concerning competition situation and personality types?
Two groups based on social motivation:
Social rejection
Social approval
Two situations;
Relay swim
Individual swim
The social rejection group performed best alone
The social approval group performed best as a team
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What is the Self-Determination theory?
Individuals are motivated to satisfy three general need :
Competence
- Sense of proficiency
Autonomy
- Behaviours are self-authored - internal locus of control
Relatedness:
- Sense of connectedness and belonging
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The sections of the self-determination continuum?
Amotivated: not motivated
External: To obtain rewards
Introjected: Avoid guilt or anxiety or obtain ego enhancements, such as pride
Identified: Engages out of personal valuation and endorsement
Integrated: Regulation is assimilated into ones self in line with other values and needs. i.e. 'I like to demonstrate my athletic abilities'
Intrinsic: Engage for the sheer enjoyment and interest in the activity itself.
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(short) Summary of Kuppens et al (2010)?
Proposal of a framework for understanding individual differences in emotional experience.
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Summary of Morris et al., (2007)?
Explores the influence of social relationships on the development of emotion regulation abilities. Attention to family influences.
Model mapping influencing factors and enter-relationships proposed.
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Summary of Aldao et al., (2010)?
Explores links of six emotion coping strategies and four pathologies.
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Summary of Berking & Wuppermans (2012)?
How key coping strategies are associated with key psychopathologies. AND challenges faced in this field.
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Emotion definition (Frijda et al., 2005)?
Short or enduring feeling states in relation to important goals or motives with cognitive, physiological and behavioural correlates.
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What are primitive and learned responses in terms of emotion processing?
A learned response is one which has been determined by previous experience concerning the stimulus.
A primitive response is one that is persistent without learned experience.
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What is known of the different types of reaction to the response of a stimulus (emotion)
Physiological response
Cognitive appraisal
Expressive behaviour
Instrumental Behaviour
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Different theories of emotion?
Cognitively driven
Physiologically driven
Current model (accepted)
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What happens in the cognitively driven theory of emotion?
1. Stimulus
2. Cognitive appraisal:
- Automatic
- Conscious (habitual/non-habitual)
3. Physiological and behavioural responses
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Evidence for individual differences in the cognitively driven theory of emotion?
1. Temperament
- sensitivities
2. Systemic biases
- Optimism/pessimism
- hostile attribution style
- Self-efficacy
- Prone to anger/guilt
3. Personality
- More trait anger means likely to appraise events as negative
- More neuroticism = tendency to appraise events as unpleasant and harder to cope with
4. Coping
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The structure of the Physiologically driven model of emotion?
1. Stimulus
2. Physiological response - lead to feelings that arise
2. Thalamus produces response to body organs/cerebral cortex (through the cortex (high road, slower) or the amygdala (low road, faster)
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Limitations in the physiologically driven model emotion?
1. Spinal cord injuries do not experience emotions differently.
2. We feel emotions differently (no universal structure)
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Accepted current model of emotion generation?
1. Stimuli
2. (in a cycle) cognitive appraisal (links to all others)
3, physiological response
4. Instrumental behaviour
5. Expressive behaviour (links back to cognitive appraisal)
Universality, cultural rules and idv. diff affect instrumental behaviour and expressive behaviour
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What is the process model of emotional regulation?
Model that categorises strategies according to the temporal order in which they occur in the emotion-generation process:
1. situation selection
2. situation modification
3. attention deployment
4. cognitive change
5. response modulating
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Main emotion regulation strategies (gross 2014)?
Adaptive
Acceptance
Problem solving
Reappraisal
Distraction
Maladaptive:
Avoidance
Suppression
Rumination
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Difficulties involved in Emotional regulation?
ER involves the need for executive control to modify emotional info at two key stages:
- Early attentional stage
- Later somatic meaning stage
It is a limited cognitive capacity process, constant competition between emotion generation and ER for dominance over our behaviour.
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How do you measure emotion regulation?
1. Emotion induction studies - controlled setting
2. Self report
- easy and quick
- Can assess the long view of patterns of emotion regulation over time
- However can people self report
- Effect of moods or self-presentation biases may confound results
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Three suggestions for the intrapersonal origin of idv diff of ER?
Temperament:
- Reactivity (speed and intensity of emotion)
- Tendency to seek comfort)
Genetic/neurobiological vulnerability
- to anxiety and depression
Plasticity:
- Neurobiological systems involved in emotion and regulation are shaped by early experiences
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Three suggestions for the interpersonal origin of idv diff of ER?
Quality of interactions
- still face experiment predicted ability to emotionally regulate
Attachment:
- Secure attachment at 18months predicted effective attachment at 3 yrs
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What are the contents of the tripartite model of the impact of family on children ER? (Morris et al., 2007)
Observation
Parenting practices
Emotional climate of the family
Emotion regulation
Adjustment
Parent characteristics
Child characteristics
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How might you map emotion regulation strategies onto possible psychopathology (depression and anxiety)?
Depression:
- Difficulties accepting and tolerating negative emotions, and adaptively modifying emotions.
- Depressed individuals respond to negative mood induction with less effective emotion regulation strategies
- Studies show dysfunction emotion regulation predict depression. (2 years after assessment)
Anxiety:
- Ineffective coping with conditioned fear responses, leading to it seeming more aversive and uncontrollable
- Idiv w/ GAD report ↑ neg. reactivity - emotion.
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Findings of Aldao et al (2010) concerning ER and psychopathology?
Some ER strategies may be more closely related to psychopathology than others:
Rumination: Effect sizes are large for anxiety and depression, mid for eating and substance disorders.
Avoidance: Large effect size for depression mid-large for anxiety and mid for eating and substance
Reappraisal: Effect sizes are small - medium for depression and anxiety and small for substance/eating
Small relationships between acceptance and reappraisal are surprising given the role of these strategies in ACT and CBT.
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Challenges in ER research and psychopathology?
Risk of premature conclusions, regarding clinical relevance, due to:
Measurement issues
Cross-sectional (correlational research)
For experimental research it can be hard to generalise .
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View of empiricism i.e. John Locke?
The mind is tabula rasa - all knowledge comes from experience.
We do not perceive objects directly we perceive ideas.
More complex ideas are created through simple ideas.
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View of behaviourism on intelligence?
J Watson - NO such thing as inheritance of intelligence
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Views of Galton on intelligence?
Believed intelligence to be innate and fixed.
Proponent of eugenics.
Looked at how intelligence 'ran in families'.
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Arguments of 'The bell curve' 1994?
Intelligence is genetically determined
Racial 'differences' in intelligence might be genetically tested.
Schools will not take much differences.
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What is proportion of shared variance?
'h2' Estimate of the average proportion of variance for any behaviour thought to be accounted for by genetic factors.
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Estimates of the heritability of intelligence?
69% - Eysenck 1979
74% - Bernstein & Murray 1994 (Bell Curve)
Recent estimates put that as too high:
50% is generally widely accepted Chipeur et al., (1990)
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What does heritability tell us, what does it not?
It is a PROPORTION of variance
Tells us the RELATIVE importance of different factors contributing to differences (it is not fixed, it may change according to the use of the factor)
Does NOT:
- Tell us how much intelligence is 'due' to genetic factors
- It is a population statistic, doesn't really tell us anything about differences between individuals, or between different populations (why the bell curve is shit).
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What can cause heritability to change?
Davis et al (2009) showed that the contribution of heritability can change over time:
- 23% in early adulthood
- 62% in middle childhood
May be due to:
- Maturation of white matter
- Active or evocative gene-environment interaction: People will seek out an environment which their genes are better expressed in (which will cause positive feedback)
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Findings regarding IQ and SES?
Turkheimer et al. (2003)
For disadvantaged families, the variation in intelligence was accounted for by the environment
For more advantaged families the variation was down to genetics.
May be because in poorer families the environment does not allow full development of intelligence.
TurkHeimer et al. (2012)
Intervention can have large effects on IQ.
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Genetic factors that have to be considered when considering the heritability of intelligence?
Dominant genetic variance
- Only genes that are dominant are reflected in the phenotype
Epistatic
- Genes themselves interact and may be switched on/off by others
Positive assorted mating:
- People tend to get together with others of a similar educational/intelligence level. If you assume that maytlng is random (it is not) then you are likely to overestimate the heritability of a characteristic
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Factors that have to be considered when using twin studies that may affect their outcomes?
Identical twins will also have a much more similar environment than non-dentical twins, will make estimates of heritability stronger.
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What is the Flynn effect?
Explanations for this?
The fact that intelligence is increasing. Quite rapidly. 15 points per decade:
- Genetic explanation is not appropriate (will be gradual).
- Non-verbal intelligence seems to be rising more than verbal intelligence (schooling would see this the opposite way around).
Possibly:
- More years at school
- Increased test sophistication
- Public health and nutrition improvements
- Visual and technical environment
Leading explanation is the increasing emphasis society put on intelligence aspects. The environment now allows these aspects to be shown.
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What is the social learning theory? Evidence?
Behaviour, attitudes and beliefs of parents are passed on to children. (and this alone)
Bandura (1961) baby doll experiment:
- If children have seen adults be aggressive to a doll then they will be more likely to be aggressive to the doll themselves.
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Findings of twin studies on the heritability of personality factors?
Reimann et al 1997:
heritability of personality factors is much higher in MZ twins rather than DZ twins. Some degree of heritability.
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Contemporary view of gene environment argument?
It is not one or the other
It is also not just both added together
There is an interaction between the two and between the factors themselves (i.e. genes have effects on other genes)
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Findings concerning timing and and stress effects on Gene environment interaction?
Later stress in life may have a larger effect than early stress (very early stress is still bad) ages 2-30 you are resistant to the effects of stress 30 upwards you are more likely to receive damage to the hippocampus
Datta (2010)
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Uses for questionnaires?
Quick and Practical measures
Useful for screening techniques
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Problems with hypothetical questions?
- not a good idea as ptp may not know how they will react in that actual situation.
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Use of reverse item scoring?
You can use it to catch people who are not really reading your questions but just putting one answer.
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What is internal consistency? How is it usually measured?
All the items measuring the same construct should measure the construct to a similar level.
Usually measured using Cronbach's Alpha.
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How is Cronbach's Alpha done (basically)
A sophisticated version of split half reliability. Basically splits the items that should be the same, and sees how similar the two groups are. It does this for as many 'splits' as are possible.
The closer the r value to 1 the better the internal consistency
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A possible use for Cronbachs alpha?
To weed out questions that are not as good at measuring what you want them to.
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What is inter-rater reliability and re-test reliability? What chantey be measured using?
Inter-rater: The similarity of two different people doing the questionnaire about the same subject i.e. mother and teacher.
Re-Test: same person doing it at a different time.
Tested with:
- Intra-class correlation coefficient
- Bland-Altman plots
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What is the Intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) and bland Altman plots?
ICC: Special type of correlation, closer to 1 the better.
Bland Altman is a useful visual aid.
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What is face validity? Measured how?
Whether the task given is actually measuring what you want it to (underlying construct).
Expert/lay opinion - no statistical test.
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What is content validity? Measured how?
Does your task measure all the key aspects of the construct you are measuring. Do others agree with how you defined the construct.
Professional opinion, based on previous work - No statistical test.
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What is criterion validity? Different types?
Is performance on a set of data consistent with what we would expect, considering other methods that are measuring the same construct.
Will it compare to a gold-standard test. (concurrent validity)
Predicted validity - does it predict the construct (i.e. Alzheimers or whatever)
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How do you measure Criterion validity?
Concurrent and predictive are measured roughly in a similar way.
Specify the 'task' as the Predictor (IV) and what you are comparing with the outcome (DV).
If Predictor and outcome are continuous then:
- Simple linear regression
- Correlations (Pearson, Spearman)
If predictor is continuous and outcome is categorical (depression yes or no) then:
- Logistic regression (Use odds ratio - greater than 1 is increased of being a case, less than one will be a protector factor)
- Receiver operated characteristics. Testing sensitivity and specificity.
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What is PCA (principle components analysis)
A specific type of Factor analysis (exploratory)
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What is response variability?
The measure of how much the items are measuring the construct you are looking for it to measure.
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What is a psychometric test/questionnaire?
Test and questionnaires where psychological theories regarding human behaviour and its measurement have been used in their creation.
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What can items broadly refer to?
Questions/activities that assess a persons:
Attitudes
- To what extent do they agree with statement x
Behaviours
- How frequently do people display a certain behaviour (can use the opinions of others)
Abilities
- How well can the ptp perform certain actions, ie. General intelligence, creative thinking and sensory/perceptual/motor function.
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What is the benefit of having more items on a psychometric questionnaire?
The more items the greater the precision in evaluating the individual on the underlying construct.
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Two main challenges in the production of a psychometric test?
1. Need a clear definition of the construct:
- Too vague and you won't find items that reliably measure it
2. Need to select items that are good predictors of the underlying construct. (this will never be perfect.)
- Need to minimise confounding factors, can ask several questions that exclude confounding factors in order to do this.
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When it comes down to it, are psychometric tests noisy, what are they good for?
They are bottom line noisy estimates. But if designed well then they can give objective enough estimates of the underlying concept.
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What is construct validity?
The most straightforward.
To what degree do responses on a psychometric test show a good fit to the construct it was designed to test. Does it deliver in its promises.
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How would you test construct validity?
Select questions that theoretically should produce higher construct validity and estimate those against questions that wouldn't, then test the theory against the data.
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What is discriminant validity?
Tests that are related to concepts it shouldn't't be
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What is the SDQ?
A brief 25-item behavioural screening questionnaire. 5x5 item sub scales assessing Prosocial behaviour and 4 items assessing total difficulties score.
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Strengths and Weaknesses in the SDQ?
Strengths:
1. Large normative datasets for a number of countries (UK, US) so can compare results to social norms
2. Different version allow for milt-informant assessment
3. More practical than other questionnaires or diagnostic interviews (quick)
4. Free to use for research purposes
Weaknesses (threats to generalisability).
Cultural variation in response
Doesn't explicitly evaluate all aspects of child mental health (content validity)
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For a test to have predictive validity what type of validity must it have first?
For predictive validity a test must first have face validity.
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What is communality?
The 'shared variance' of items on a psychometric questionnaire. If it was 0 then they would ALL be measuring a different construct.
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If the Eigenvalue is greater than 1 in factor analysis, what would you do?
What is the other criteria you can check (checking for construct validity)?
It is worth extracting those items (using them?) They are explaining a large amount of the variance
Then check the Scree plot, try to extract the factors before it levels off.
Mostly Eigenvalues are used.
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what is factor rotation in exploratory factor analysis?
Rotate the axes, as to make sure the individual items are loading on one component specifically - as much as possible.
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What is confirmatory factor analysis?
Exploratory is not hypothesis driven - it might not generalise to the population.
You can use formal confirmatory testing to see if it is generalisable. Will also tell you (if you have two solutions in exploratory), which is better.
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What is structural equation modelling?
Similar to factor analysis, but can identify if some factors are nested within/related to each other.
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Openness to experience is sometimes interpreted as what in other models (other than the five factor one)?
Intellect
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According to Eysenck, high levels of neuroticism are associated with what?
High sensitivity of the reticulo-limbic system
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What are the assumptions of the lexical hypothesis?
single word descriptors evolved for more important personality constructs.
