individual psychology and war (12)

Question 1

waltz: how do states behave?

Answer 1

o States behave the way they do not because of their nature, but because they are shaped and shoved by the nature of the system (the market).

Question 2

what is * Hypothesis of First Imagers

Answer 2

Universalized individual goodness leads to peace.
o Pessimists: solution in institutions;
o Optimists: solutions in education.

Question 3

what are the Approaches to peace in the behavioral sciences:

Answer 3

o (1) understanding,
o (2) social adjustment to reduce frustration and insecurity,
o (3) leaders be trained,
o (4) expectations of men must be changed,
o (5) applied social sciences in government.

Question 4

what are the assumptions of the rational decision model

Answer 4

-Abstract Assumptions: not real, but work:
People that do not approximate rational behavior are eliminated by the process of natural selection.
-Real assumption: Goal directed behavior:
A consistent utility functions of rank-ordered preferences (A>B>C) – without contradictions.
-Simplifying assumptions ideal for large-n studies where we have no research access.

Question 5

what is the major methodological problem of the rational decision model

Answer 5

Establishing preferences of individuals by their behavior assumes no strategic deception. + people tent to lie to themselves

Question 6

what is expected utility theory?

Answer 6

Decision-makers consider options in terms of the probabilities associated with possible outcomes multiplied by the utilities associated with those outcomes.
Leaders choose the higher expected utility between action and inaction to determine policy.

Question 7

when does expected utility theory tend to accure?

Answer 7

• More likely to occur between unequals because of time availability and greater availability of information for decision-making (more time permits full info for DM).
  o EG: This model would argue that in 1990, President Saddam Hussein ordered his military to invade Kuwait because he believed that the payoff of success times the probability of success were greater than the payoff of inaction and its probability of success.

Question 8

what can explain non-rational models?

Answer 8

People are not dysfunctional, but have difficulty with large amounts of contradictory information.

Question 9

what are the 3 cognitive psychological models?

Answer 9

(I): Schema Theory (non-motivational bias)
(II): Cognitive Dissonance Theory (motivational (emotional) bias)
(III): Developmental Dispositions

Question 10

what is (I): Schema Theory (non-motivational bias)

Answer 10

• Humans are categorizers and labellers, overwhelmed by sensations and information, and trying to obtain relevant information by placing experiences into categories.
• Human cognitive abilities are limited, and therefore human rationality is bounded or abbreviated: these represent mental economies.
  o Humans use short-hand diagnostics to understand situations.

Question 11

what are the four benefits to humans of schema?

Answer 11

o (1). Schemas allow people to select what is important out of the flux of experience.
o (2). Schemas are economical means of storing memories of objects and events.
o (3). Schemas enable a person to go beyond the information given and make inferences about an object or situation.
o (4). Schemas enable a person to envision and carry out a sequence of actions to achieve a particular goal.

Question 12

( schema theory )Associations between events will be remembered especially if…

Answer 12

o (a). Experienced first hand
o (b). Occurred early in life
o (c). Had important consequences
o (d). Not linked with events offering alternative explanations

Question 13

what is (II): Cognitive Dissonance Theory (motivational (emotional) bias)

Answer 13

Inconsistencies within the cognitive system cause an uncomfortable state of tension that people are then motivated to reduce or eliminate.

Question 13

what is the Consequences of schema theory

Answer 13

Satisfice (choose first best rather than best possible course of action):
o Humans can’t optimize because of cognitive limits: undermines communication and increases misunderstandings of an adversary.

Question 14

what is the assumption of Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Answer 14

o The underlying assumption is that people’s beliefs are highly interconnected and mutually coherent.
 The existence of dissonance creates a negative drive that will motivate the person to reduce or eliminate the inconsistency.

Question 15

what are 3 ways to reduce dissonance ( Cognitive Dissonance Theory):

Answer 15

o (1). Changing behavior associated with one of the dissonant cognitive elements.
o (2). Altering the physical or psychological environment.
o (3). Adding consistent cognitive elements to change the ratio of consonant to dissonant cognitions (inside the subject’s head).

Question 16

People vary in their reaction to cognitive dissonance three ways:

Answer 16

o (1). People have differing thresholds of tolerance for inconsistency.
o (2). Inconsistency is relative to different cognitive maps.
o (3). People differ in their preferred method of reducing consistency (vary uptight).

Question 17

Fear & anxiety amplify these stresses and may produce..

Answer 17

defensive mechanisms:
o Operate only when there are high-intensity choices:
 Such as requires a trade-off between two or more sets of high value goals that cannot be satisfied simultaneously (having to choose between two children).

Question 18

what is A principal distortion of (Cognitive Dissonance Theory):

Answer 18

defensive avoidance of the situation.

Question 19

what is the consequence of “defensive avoidance of the situation”

Answer 19

o Seek stable set of beliefs:
 Leads to systematic errors and biases in the interpretation of information: undermines communication and increases misunderstandings of an adversary.
o EG: During the Vietnam War in the late-1960s, the prospect that the war was unwinnable, but at the same time that the U.S. could not pull out because of the damage of confidence it would do to other U.S. allies, led U.S. President Lyndon Johnson to continue the war (defensive avoidance).

Question 20

Human sociology influences how decisions are made, described by evidence is the effects of….

Answer 20

ingroupism & outgroupism.

Question 21

what is Ingroupism

Answer 21

Humans are social animals that strive to belong.Ingroupism states that: their self-worth is enhanced by their identification with the purpose of group.

Question 22

what is outgroupism

Answer 22

is the tendency to view groups outside one’s own as illegitimate, and to exaggerate the hostility of them as a threat to the in-group.

Question 23

Ingroupims and outgroupism is inversely related:

Answer 23

the more tight the in-group, the more suspicious, fearful, or hostile they are to the outgroup. As well, the more suspicious, provocative or hostile is the behavior of the out-group, the more tight is the in-group. These two relationships are therefore mutually reinforcing.

Question 24

what is the fundamental attribution error

Answer 24

ourgroups are attributed with hostile policies by choice and in-groups with defensive policies by necessity. ( security dilemma )

Question 25

An important decision-making consequence of ingroup/ourgroupism is…..

Answer 25

groupthink. Groupthink is a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members’ strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action.
_The more amiability and esprit de corps among members of a policy-making in-group, the greater is the danger that independent critical thinking will be replaced by groupthink, which is likely to result in irrational and dehumanizing actions directed against out-groups.

Question 26

what are The Eight Symptoms of Groupthink:

Answer 26

1). Illusion of Invulnerability
2). Belief in Inherent Morality of Group
3). Collective Rationalization
4). Out-Group Stereotypes
5). Self-Censorship: I am not going to rock the boat.
6). Illusion of Unanimity
7). Direct Pressure on Dissenters
8). Self-Appointed Mindguards

Question 27

what is conformist voting

Answer 27

Groupthink can result from “conformist voting,” in which respondents in a group are influenced by prior respondents

Question 28

what is the solution to Groupthink

Answer 28

institutionalize a devil’s advocate.

Question 29

what is (III): Developmental Dispositions

Answer 29

• Explain: Aggression in IR.
  o Based on clinical evidence of personality types and behavior. ( upbringing can explain )

Question 30

what are the 3 tendencies of Developmental Dispositions:

Answer 30

o (1). Rebellious attitude to authority (implied jealousy of power),
o (2). Dominating authority,
o (3). Bluster (verbal aggression).

Question 31

what are the 4 characteristics of Developmental Dispositions:

Answer 31

o Shyness,
o Intolerance,
o Social Darwinism,
o Paranoia.

Question 32

• Belligerence can be traced to early life: 4 categories…

Answer 32

1. Family environment (female): passivity or over-masculine.
2. Child’s relationship with parents (authoritarian upbringing) outgroups.
3. Child welfare (unhappy/ill health);
4. Education (social Darwinism).

Question 33

what are the Problem of Developmental Dispositions?

Answer 33

o (1). Warlike personalities are productive domestically: business, education, and sports.
o (2). Selection on DV: looked only at consistent belligerent individuals.
o (3). Can we infer much from this study because of the focus on Western personalities? Guilt (individual) vs. shame (group) cultures?