Industrialisation

Question 1

Why was the IR fundamental in transforming the modern world?

Answer 1

It transformed the economy, society, culture and politics of nineteenth century Europe

Question 2

What was the IR

Answer 2

The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, improved efficiency of water power, the increasing use of steam power, and the development of machine tools. It also included the change from wood and other bio-fuels to coal. Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested; the textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods.[1]

Question 3

Three major macro-inventions of the Industrial Revolution

Answer 3

Cotton Spinning and Weaving Technology
The Steam Engine
Coke Smelting (a better process for making iron

Question 4

Before the Industrial Revolution

Answer 4

No factories
Women spun wool yarn in their homes
Men weaved the yarn into cloth
All this technology was human powered

Question 5

After the Industrial Revolution

Answer 5

Rise of large factories
Allowed machines to be mechanically powered first by water and later by steam
Dense conglomeration of factories in Northern industrial cities

Question 6

Social pre IR

Answer 6

Largely rural production in England
Farm work and other products were produced near the home
Work was not harshly regimented

Question 7

Social change ir

Answer 7

Workers were forced onto an industrial time schedule
12 hours six days a week
Proletarianization – shift from self-employed farmers to wage labour (especially on the continent)
Emergence of working class culture
Potentially an increase in child labour (change in types of work at least)
People flocked to the growing industrial cities
Overcrowding
Unsanitary conditions
Transport became much easier and cheaper

Question 8

Environmental change ir

Answer 8

Increased pollution
Coal powered plants produced a lot of smoke
Significantly influenced health of the British Population
Roads, canals and railways greatly expand
Changed landscape

Question 9

2 IR?

Answer 9

First is related to cotton textiles
Focus for today
Second is related to steam and heavy industry (metals)

Question 10

Textile pre IR

Answer 10

Before IR, Britain produced wool and linen (flax)
Putting-out system (proto-industrialization)
Women spun in the homes while caring for their children
It is likely that over 50% of women were involved in spinning
Women (especially single women) could earn relatively high wages
Children helped with carding wool
Women used a spinning wheel
1 woman could only operate 1 spindle (mechanism that spun the yarn)
Traders collected spun yarn and distributed it to male weavers who wove it with a handloom
Very important to the British economy
39.4% of occupied population employed in trades and manufacturing
Most of British exports before IR were woolen cloth
Most cotton cloth was produced in India
Low count thread (jeans) to very fine high count thread (muslin)

Question 11

Hargreave’s Spinning Jenny (mid-1760s)

Answer 11

Turned the spinning wheel on its side
24 spindles per machine operated by 1 woman
Labour saving technical change – substitute capital (machine) for labour (the spinner)
Could be used at home
Produced mostly low count yarn (18 count)
Relatively small impact on cost of producing yarn
Allen argues that it was a small innovation on existing technologies
20,070 jennies in use by 1788

Question 12

Arkwright and the Cotton Mill

Answer 12

Several inventions allowed Arkwright to place the entire cotton spinning process in one building
Water frame (1769)
Similar to spinning jenny but used rollers to draw out carded cotton (roving)
Powered by a non-human energy source (horse or water powered)
Produced higher count yarn (40 count)
Carding machine (1775)
Automated the process of aligning the fibres of the raw cotton
Drastically reduced labour input costs
Cromford Mill (1772)
Became the prototype for all cotton mills in the future
Had to arrange the machines over to floors in a building
Used water power
Hundreds of spindles per worker

Question 13

Crompton’s Spinning Mule (1779)

Answer 13

Most important spinning invention
Added rollers to the Jenny mechanism
Produced very even yarn
Could produce incredibly high count cotton yarn (100 count)
Could also be implemented in a factory
Required physical strength to
   operate
Men took over spinning as the
   mule became widespread
Women lost employment
Roberts’ later developed a self-
   acting mule that reduced the
   strength requirement
1,000s of spindles per worker

Question 14

Cost of production

Answer 14

Cost of producing low count cotton yarn fell by half in 75 years
Most of savings from labour intensive activities

Question 15

Roberts’ Power Loom (1830)

Answer 15

Increasing production of cotton yarn required more handloom weavers to weave the yarn
Initially weaving was carried out in the same non-mechanized
Lots of new people employed as handloom weavers
Mechanizing weaving was more difficult than spinning
Cartwright invented a power loom in 1784 but it was not viable
Roberts’ Loom (1830) was the first viable fully automated loom
Others made additional improvements until weaving was also completely mechanized
Thousands of handloom weavers lost their jobs
This left them very poorly off
Industrial Revolution created winners and losers – handloom weavers were losers

Question 16

Consequences of Cotton Textiles early 1800’s

Answer 16

Eventually steam power replaced water power to drive factories (early 1800s)
This allowed production to be concentrated in a small area
Reduced costs of transporting yarn to weavers
Led to the rise of the Northern industrial cities
Industrial counties had population growth at a rate of 546.5% between 1700 and 1851
England as a whole only experienced population growth of 226.8%

Question 17

Consequences of Cotton Textiles 1830’s

Answer 17

By the mid 1830s
425,000 people were employed in the cotton textile industry
16% of jobs in British manufacturing
8% of British GDP
4.2 million machine driven spindles (1790)

Question 18

IR just uk?

Answer 18

IR spreads to continental Europe and the US in the 19th century

Question 19

Brenner and Marx why IR in Britain

Answer 19

Industrial Revolution occurred in Britain because it was the most capitalist of European nations
Serfdom ended very early in Britain
Britain had a large protoindustrial sector
Most people worked as wage labourers rather than on family farms
British market was the most developed
Industrial Revolution the natural outcome of this process

Question 20

Weber Why ind revo in Britain

Answer 20

Rationality and Region Argument put forward by Max Weber (1864-1920)

Weber suggested that first came a radical change of ideas.
.

This was manifested in the Protestant Reformation, and the preaching of protestant leaders, especially John Calvin, in opposition to the prevailing thoughts and practices of the Catholic church at the time.
.

Among the various values advocated by the protestants, were ideas of self sufficiency, frugality and independent relations with God instead of through a priest.
.

Frugality was an essential attitude needed to encourage saving and investment, an important element of capitalism and the industrial revolution

Question 21

The Scientific Revolution and IR

Answer 21

Improvements in scientific theories made industrial technology possible
Usually this argument is made for the invention of steam power

Question 22

Pomeranz – Coal and Colonies

Answer 22

Out of land to produce resources, especially food, fibre and wood
Europe could easily get land intensive resources from colonies
Sugar, cotton and timber
China was not able to gain land intensive products from its periphery
Extra resources allowed Europe to continue to expand
Coal was especially important for this for Britain

Question 23

Mokyr – The Enlightened Economy

Answer 23

In a vigorous discussion, Mokyr goes beyond the standard explanations that credit geographical factors, the role of markets, politics, and society to show that the beginnings of modern economic growth in Britain depended a great deal on what key players knew and believed, and how those beliefs affected their economic behavior. He argues that Britain led the rest of Europe into the Industrial Revolution because it was there that the optimal intersection of ideas, culture, institutions, and technology existed to make rapid economic growth achievable. His wide-ranging evidence covers sectors of the British economy often neglected, such as the service industries - enlightenment

Question 24

Spread of Industrialization

Answer 24

Britain – 1760s onward
Western Europe and USA – mid-nineteenth century onward
Southern and Eastern Europe, British Dominions and Japan – late 19th/early 20th century
Latin America – first half of twentieth century
East and South Asia – post-WWII
Dramatic growth in South Korea and Taiwan (East Asian Miracles)
Africa has experienced very little industrialization (apart from mining in South Africa)

Question 25

Four main components 2nd IR

Answer 25

Steam Allowed for mechanized energy to power factories Improved transportations – railways and steamships Iron and Steel Coke smelting improved the quality of iron produced Used to build factories, other buildings and most importantly railways Chemicals Dyes and other improvements in chemistry Interchangeable Parts Creating uniform products that could be mass produced Jim will discuss the second two of these tomorrow

Question 26

Steam Engines

Answer 26

First successful steam engine designed by Thomas Newcomen in 1712 Designed to draw water out of mines Distant cousin to a steam engine that would run a train Newcomen and later Watt improved upon the original design to make the steam engine more efficient Coal consumption per power output fell Engine was redesigned to make it more flexible Thomson’s ‘Theory of the relations between heat and mechanical energy’ (scientific treatise) did not come until the 1850s

Question 27

Railways particularly important

Answer 27

Stimulated heavy industry (iron, steel, and engineering) Helped to create a global economy Integrated markets on land Metal steamships did the same on water Huge literature (and debate) on the importance of railways More efficient and beneficial to economic growth in Latin America than anywhere else Contribution to growth in the US has been debated, but it is likely that they were quite important Also increased speed of information (along with the telegraph)

Question 28

Why did British technology spread to other countries?

Answer 28

Contested by various historians - see Mokyr, Allen, Pomeranz

Question 29

Mokyr why spread

Answer 29

The Industrial Enlightenment set the stage for industrial technology to spread around Europe Common set of scientific ideas Similar method for improving technology Relatively high human capital so that people could take advantage of the technology

Question 30

Profitability of Technology (Allen)

Answer 30

Assume for a minute that Allen was correct Industrial technology was not profitable in countries other than Britain because wages were low and energy was expensive If these wages and energy prices didn’t change, how could industrial technology have spread? Macro-inventions vs. Micro-inventions Macro-inventions were determined by the factor prices at the time of invention Over time, macro-inventions were improved by micro-inventions Reduced the costs of the technology Made blast furnaces and steam engines more energy efficient Eventually macro-inventions improved enough that they can be implemented at different factor prices Lower wages More expensive energy

Question 31

How did Technology Spread

Answer 31

How did people in other countries learn of new technologies? Industrial espionage French sent several agents to try to steal British cotton textile technology One even drew an entire mill from memory despite not being able to bring technology back to France Inventors patent their technology in a number of countries Attempted to control the use of their technology across Europe Eventually machine building industry picked up Exported machinery around the world

Question 32

Germany Before Industrialization

Answer 32

Germany not unified until 1871 Consisted of 38 (or more) independent kingdoms, duchies, etc. Often had trade barriers between the regions (customs fees) Less developed economically than rest of Europe Lower agricultural productivity Low urbanization rate Undeveloped transport network Low wages Low levels of GDP per capita However, Germany was a technological leader with high real wages by the late nineteenth century

Question 33

How did Germany Industrialize?

Answer 33

Four steps to Germany’s industrialization Creation of a custom’s union (Zollverein) Establish an external tariff on British manufactures Create banks to fund entrepreneurship and the stabilize currency Set up mass education

Question 34

Creation of a Customs Union

Answer 34

Internal trade barriers discourage trade Customs fees increase prices of goods and make them more difficult to transport This limits the size of the market However, in 1818, Prussia created its own customs union Eventually, the Zollverein (1833) was established allowing free trade within its borders Other German states joined this over time Allowed for greater trade within Germany People could start producing goods for areas beyond their local region Also allowed for a common currency across German regions

Question 35

External Tariff of Zollverein

Answer 35

The Zollverein also established an external tariff against trade coming from other countries Encouraged other German states to join the customs union Prevented British goods from taking over the market Allowed Germany industry to develop German industry expanded under the tariff Small cotton textile industry Larger iron and eventually steel industry Germany was not far behind with implementing later industrial technology such as railways, electricity and in chemical manufacturing

Question 36

Investment Banking and Entrepreneurship Britain v Germany

Answer 36

Investment banks played little role in British industrialization Perhaps Britain had accumulated more capital than Germany because of the slave trade German investment banks actively promoted industrialization in the German regions The largest German banks were all founded before 1870 Deutsche Bank, Commerzbank, Dresdner Bank They had lots of branches to assemble capital of many depositors Gave industrialists long-term funds with low rates of interest

Question 37

Mass Education Germany

Answer 37

Prussia implemented universal primary education in the late eighteenth century Other German states followed with nearly all German children receiving primary education by the mid-nineteenth century This attention to education was much stronger than in Britain This ensured that the population had the skills to implement modern technology Mass education is also associated with fertility decline and investment in children

Question 38

America Before Industrialization

Answer 38

Economic conditions Specialized in primary products US South was the primary producer of cotton that drove the British Industrial Revolution 1760 onward Lots of open land for agriculture High wages Wages higher than Britain and thus most of the rest of the world Integration of prices between Britain and the US Political Conditions Free trade between states Large market for domestically produced goods New but democratic institutions – pro-merchant

Question 39

Process of American Industrialization

Answer 39

Implemented similar policies to Germany Created a customs union (US Constitution 1789) Raised an external tariff Set up a national bank (though perhaps less importance of investment banks) Expanded education rapidly Americans also responded to factor prices to create even more capital intensive technology This allowed them to supersede British productivity across the nineteenth century

Question 40

Customs Union America

Answer 40

Before independence (and before the constitution) American colonies could have different currency and internal trade barriers Couldn’t trade wheat across state lines without paying a tax Limited the size of the internal market Constitution (1787) set up a customs union among the states One currency and trade policy set at federal level Allowed for expansion of internal market Regional specialization South – cotton West – food for the south (and later Europe) Northeast – manufacturing

Question 41

External Tariff america

Answer 41

US established a tariff of 20% in 1816 Tariff changed but remained high throughout the nineteenth century US only became pro-free trade after WWII Tariff allowed for manufacturing to develop in the Northeast (Harley) America produced cotton textiles and was second largest producer in the world by mid-nineteenth century Also developed a complex iron and steel industry

Question 42

Mass Education and R&D America

Answer 42

US also began to implement mass education policy Especially in the industrial Northeast Already had high literacy and numeracy rates before industrialization This eased the spread of industrial machinery and ensured that modern technology was utilized widely across the economy Research and Development The US also developed and invested heavily in university education Universities helped develop new technologies at the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries Helped Americans develop technology to their own economic conditions (factor prices) Firms also set up internal R&D to promote innovation

Question 43

American Technological Innovation

Answer 43

American technological path was somewhat different than Britain Americans did not simply adopt British technology They adapted it to their own factor prices Economic conditions in America Capital and natural resource costs were equal to Britain or higher Higher wages than in England American technology was even more biased toward saving labour Replace expensive labour costs with relatively cheap capital Thus, Americans improved on British technology and made it even more efficient

Question 44

Did Victorian Britain Fail?

Answer 44

Victorian Britain did fall behind in terms of labour productivity and technological progress McCloskey (1971) argued that they did not, but she has been largely disproven The question is why did Britain fall behind Three key factors It did not invest in human capital Average person did not invest in industry It did not invest in R&D

Question 45

Human Capital and R&D

Answer 45

While US and Germany were investing in human capital, the UK fell far behind British universities did not expand as quickly Germans were better at training skilled labour It took the British a long time to implement a mass education system R&D higher in US and Germany Partially university investment in practical research Partially firms investing in research

Question 46

Capital investment Britain

Answer 46

``` Investment rates in domestic British industry was low compared to the US and Germany Average middle class British people did not invest their money in industry Partially due to high returns in foreign investments However, financial institutions were also less developed in Britain for domestic investment Investors in the city of London more likely to invest abroad than at home Missed some important opportunities British domestic investment was also more targeted at traditional sectors ```

Question 47

Progress as infrastructural development Ottoman

Answer 47

End of 19c most extensive telegraph system anywhere in the world 1908 Hejaz Railway extends north - transforms pilgrimage from 1 month to 2 days 1869 Suez Canal

Question 48

Industrialisation America Ford

Answer 48

Ford drives wages up to enable an increase in consumers Division of labour Factory conveyor belt due to electric motors

Question 49

Chemistry IR Willliam Henry Perkin

Answer 49

1838 - 1907 British Chemist and Dye maker dominates market in mauve - new colour dye.

Question 50

Whio was Justus Von Liebeg?

Answer 50

Professor Chemistry at Giessen | Developed lab based teaching focussed on practical needs of industrial and agriculture

Question 51

What were large part of 2nd ind rev

Answer 51

Chemists employed by factories to invent new products

Question 52

Putting out system /proto-industrialisation

Answer 52

The putting-out system is a means of subcontracting work. Historically, it was also known as the workshop system and the domestic system. In putting-out, work is contracted by a central agent to subcontractors who complete the work in off-site facilities, either in their own homes or in workshops with multiple craftsmen

Question 53

Robert Allen Why britain

Answer 53

I argue that the explanation of the Industrial Revolution was fundamentally economic. The Industrial Revolution was Britain’s creative response to the challenges and opportunities created by the global economy that emerged after 1500. This was a two step process. In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries a European-wide market emerged. England took a commanding position in this new order as her wool textile industry out competed the established producers in Italy and the Low Countries. England extended her lead in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries by creating an intercontinental trading network including the Americas and India. Intercontinental trade expansion depended on the acquisition of colonies, mercantilist trade promotion, and naval power.

Question 54

Robert Allen on Labour and capital

Answer 54

Success in international trade created Britain’s high wage, cheap energy economy, and it was the spring board for the Industrial Revolution. High wages and cheap energy created a demand for technology that substituted capital and energy for labour.

Question 55

Robert Allen why Britain first

Answer 55

The Industrial Revolution was confined to Britain for many years, because the technological breakthroughs were tailored to British conditions and could not be profitably deployed elsewhere. However, British engineers strove to improve efficiency and reduced the use of inputs that were cheap in Britain as well as those that were expensive. The consumption of coal in steam engines, for instance, was cut from 45 pounds per horse power-hour in the early eighteenth to only 2 pounds in the mid-nineteenth. The genius of British engineering undermined the country’s technological lead by creating ‘appropriate technology’ for the world at large. By the middle of the nineteenth century, advanced technology could be profitably used in countries like France with expensive energy and India with cheap labour. Once that happened, the Industrial Revolution went world wide.