Industry/urban/rural

Question 1

Provincial newspapers

Answer 1

Houston: 1800 = 122 circulating libraries in London, and 268 in rest of England; 35 provincial newspapers in England in 1760 and 50 by 1782, with 400,000 copies p.a. circulating.

Question 2

Petitions frequency

Answer 2

1780: 880

Question 3

London’s dissenting population

Answer 3

15-20% in early C18

Question 4

The poor - laws and relief

Answer 4

Knatchbulls/Workhouse Test Act (1723)
Parishes could combine to create workhouses
1723-1750: 600 houses built
Porter - poor cost £6-700,000 in 1700 rose to £2 mil by 1800. Poor law = “useful technique of control”. Solutions “were treating surface symptoms, not root economic causes”. Number of capital offences rose from 50 - 200 from 1689 to 1800 - only 1/3 of sentenced hanged.

Question 5

Laws on dissent

Answer 5

Act of Toleration (1690)
Schism Act (1714) - only licensed, sacrament taking people could run schools (not properly put into place because Anne died.)

Question 6

Commerce stats

Answer 6

Annual average of imports in £1000 between 1699-1701 and 1772-4
Sugar: 630 -> 2562
Tea: 8-> 848

Question 7

Sugar market

Answer 7

Britain overtook French rivals by 1815 to provide 60% sugar consignments to Europe

Question 8

China imports

Answer 8

215 mil pieces by 1791

Question 9

Scottish industry

Answer 9

DEVINE: 230,000 people in the linen trade following union, 70-80% exports supported by bounties encouraging trade with America. Naval protection of ships.

Question 10

Scottish population shift

Answer 10

Population increase and shift - 9% urban in 1750; 1/3 in 1800

Question 11

Taxes introduced:

Answer 11

Townsend Acts (1767) taxes on basic goods 
Income tax (1799)
Between 1793-1816: £1.5 billion raised in taxes. 
1816: national debt at £902 million.

Question 12

Key points - DE VRIES

Answer 12

Industrious revolution. 
Specialisation
Urbanisation
Labour from primary materials to goods 
Application of science

Question 13

Models of industrialisation:

Answer 13

DEAN AND COLE: ‘evolution’ model.
CRAFT: D&C actually 1/3 of the pace they suggested
HARLEY: downward revision of growth - minor on large scale.
DE VRIES: Industriousness

Question 14

Work days

Answer 14

VOTH: 20% more work days from removing calendar days (secularisation); London work day increased by 40% between 1750 and 1830 according to evidence from the Old Bailey records.

Question 15

Wages movement

Answer 15

WRIGLEY - “large and sustained growth in real incomes per head”

Question 16

Women and industry

Answer 16

Still ‘domestic’ roles (cloth/education); often in the putting-out system.
No gov. info on women’s occupations in census until 1851.
80% widows could survive 1-5 yrs in London working alone. Prostitution = “residual employment”
Informal and few sources.
Humphries - 30-35% women participating.
Porter - “squeezed out of the labour market” matrimony = “safest career”

Question 17

Causes of improved agricultural productivity:

Answer 17

OVERTON: land reclamation, drainage, deforesting (3000 acres from Woodstock, £10,000), enclosure, fertiliser (Arthur Young), introduction of turnip crops (productive fallow and introduced better fertiliser via animal feed to land)
Regional specialisation: Cheshire (cheese), Worcestershire (wheat)
1830’s watershed when machinery used in agri. - saved 70% labour!

Question 18

Agricultural output increase

Answer 18

OVERTON: per. Worker decreased from 80% population being agricultural in 1500 to 20% in 1850.
WRIGLEY: in 1800 only 40% of adult males worked in agriculture, less than all of Europe.

Question 19

Contemporary opinions on market regulation

Answer 19

ADAM SMITH: should be self-regulating with no interference. More trade=bigger productive capacity.
William Pitt (1796) "Trade, industry and barter will... be impeded by regulations"

Question 20

Impact of wars?

Answer 20

Huge labour shift to women, masses of men lost, taxation increased, less supplies readily available… converse: stimulus to industries such as iron. eg. Porter: Ambrose Crowley had a work force of 1,200 producing metal work for the Navy.

Question 21

State adaption over c18:

Answer 21

BREWER - fiscal-military state.

Question 22

Government regulation of agriculture:

Answer 22

Board of Agriculture established in 1793 amongst shortages

Corn Laws introduced in 1815

Question 23

Workers unions/strikes

Answer 23

Banned under the Combination Act of 1799.
Good eg’s: tailors of London, Tyne keelmen (on strike for 3 weeks), Scottish weavers 40,000 looms for 6 weeks in 1812.
Luddite riots of 1790’s defended by Byron (also 1811-15).
1830’s - Captain Swing Riots (against threshing machinery)
Porter - 400 labour disputes recorded for the c18. - “bargaining by direct action”; Sweet - 333 strikes 1717-1800 because of the growth of unions.

Question 24

Urbanisation quote

Answer 24

DEVINE - “the key engine of urbanisation was industrialisation”

Question 25

Birmingham

Answer 25

DAVIDOFF AND HALL - doubled in size between 1780-1800 to 70,000 people. By 1759 trades employed 20,000 people. Porter - in 1770 Birmingham had 248 innkeepers, 77 merchants, 64 bakers.

Question 26

Urban living changes

Answer 26

SWEET - Oil lamps in London from mid C17, gas lighting in early C19. Paving of Southampton in 1770 for £4775 Water acts from 1830's when water realised as more dangerous than smelly air... 1835 = first provisions for a national police force

Question 27

Key ideas - industry

Answer 27

- was culture a cause or effect of industry?

Question 28

Cultural impact of industrialisation

Answer 28

Rise of science and the decline of superstition; rise of standardisation (measurements, language - dictionaries, education - peers at same unis) Imperial system as of 1824.

Question 29

Relationship between the law/gov and industry

Answer 29

WRIGLEY - econ conditions for entrepreneurship. Porter - Government = minimal and efficient, checking the monarch's waste of resources, securing property rights, keeping a functioning legal system at work; economic infrastructure of credit and bill-broking (thus providing a favourable climate for investors/entrepreneurs)

Question 30

Shifts occurring in industrialisation

Answer 30

Wrigley: From human energy to fossil fuels. De Vries: proto-industry "first and foremost a form of labour intensification" Drive for goods = pleasure not utility. From labour to capital intensive methods - but all housed within a traditional framework of employment (eg. putting-out in the textiles industry) - Porter - sub-contracting "remained ubiquitous as a mode of employment"

Question 31

Dearth

Answer 31

Porter: "shortages were brief, local, and of particular crops only"

Question 32

Rural economy

Answer 32

Porter: "the rural economy was far better capitalised and more businesslike and productive, than almost any on the continent"

Question 33

General population stats

Answer 33

Porter - population = 5 million in 1700, 80% in countryside, 90% in managing raw materials. 11.5 million in 1821.

Question 34

Relationship of agriculture and industry?

Answer 34

Porter - they "fit perfectly together"

Question 35

Geography and industry/agriculture

Answer 35

Porter - S+E - arable, densely populated, higher wages - corn, iron founding, naval dockyards, luxury trades of London. N+W - upland, wooded, scattered settlements (less profitable. Peaks = ideal for cloth washing (water); Pennines = lead. First factory = 1719, Derby, using water wheels. Salt and cheese in Cheshire. Sweet water of the Trent good for brewing.

Question 36

Innovation

Answer 36

Porter- "England teemed with practical men of enterprise"

Question 37

Trade enablers

Answer 37

Porter - England "teemed with middle men", "techniques of exchange became faster, cheaper, more reliable"

Question 38

Raw materials

Answer 38

Porter - London's coal use from 800,000 tons in 1700 to 2,500,000 in 1800. Raw cotton imports increased x 8 between 1780-1800.

Question 39

Communication

Answer 39

Porter - Canals, turnpikes (sub-economy of jobs eg. inns; 109 turnpike acts 1720-50 - 389 in 1751-72; went from a 90 to 33 hour journey from Manch. to London between 17/1800), rivers. Overton - General Turnpike Act (1772) Water transport increased from 900 miles of navigable river in 1700 to 1,100 in 1720 Changes allowed the delivery of 60 million letters by 1838.

Question 40

Technological changes

Answer 40

Flying shuttle (1733), Hargreave's spinning jenny (1765), Arkwright's water wheel (1769), Crompton's mule (to connect water frame with jenny) (1779), steam pump, light-houses, ball-cock toilet (1778 patent), umbrellas, toothbrushes! Alternative power = wind mills (eg. for fen pumping)

Question 41

Culture of change

Answer 41

Porter - "the collective desire for advancement... caught the public imagination"

Question 42

Key changes of Industrialisation

Answer 42

modern science and empirical knowledge applied to all, specialisation, urbanisation, enlargement/denationalisation of production units, primary products to manufactured goods/services, intensive/extensive use of capital

Question 43

London

Answer 43

Porter - "London was a bottomless pit of consumption"; 700,000 people in 1700; 10,000+ prostitutes. Overton - consumed 10-15% of produce from hinterlands in 1801 with a population of 960,000 Brewer - 1 in 10 lived in London, by 1801 1/4 of English/welsh lived in towns.

Question 44

Wool industry

Answer 44

Smail - eg's of successes: Charles Hudson, Halifax - non/mechanical modes both used.. Holroyd, Leeds, used mechanical finishing processes - made £10,000 p.a. like this. Worsted yarn - mechanised machinery only introduced in 1787 and not taken on until c19 - remained hand-produced until then.

Question 45

Enclosure

Answer 45

Wrigley - 24% country enclosed in c17; 13% c18; 11% c19 - 20% England's area overall. Hoppit - 1/5 of all land; 44% Westminster, 28% Edinburgh and 17% Dublin legislation. 1/3 of legislation on estates = at personal request of owners. Porter - fatter animals, reduced disease, brought 2-3 mil. acres of waste into cultivation. Stone - elites owned 1/4-1/3 of all rented values in 1880.

Question 46

Urban/rural/class sources

Answer 46

Pope - ROTL (1712) - court Anna "dost sometimes counsel take - and sometimes tea"; Essay on Criticism (1711) "For different styles with different subjects sort,/ as several garbs for country, town, and court." Swift - Gulliver (1726) "Our young noblemen are bred from childhood in idleness and luxury", "wit, valour, and politeness were likewise proposed to be heavily taxed"; Modest Proposal: "a young healthy child, well nursed...[is] a most delicious, nourishing and wholesome food" Hogarth - Marriage a la mode Lord Shaftesbury's letters - shows polite 'self' could not be genuine.

Question 47

Industry = Data + sources

Answer 47

Hoppit - statistics flawed, known to be so at the time. | Holmes - King unique "quantitative approach to social analysis" in 1690's; Colquhoun in 1806.

Question 48

Women and employment

Answer 48

Holmes - 1/5 of jobs in every sector done by women? | Burnette - valued women's jobs = eg. straw plaiting in napolenic wars, paid 21s per. week (2 x avg. male agri. labourer)

Question 49

Urban vs. Rural population

Answer 49

Devine - 17% English population = urban vs. 9% Scots.

Question 50

Marriage and u/c's

Answer 50

Habbakuk - in 1861, 7-9% of aristocrats had childless marriages. "marriage was the principle means by which landed families extended their estates" (eg. Townshend lords married 7 heiresses in succession) Porter - marriage was "a matter of family policy"

Question 51

Literacy and literary culture

Answer 51

Brewer - 10% male in 1500, 45% 1714, 60% mid c18. Women = 36% library readers in 1793 towns. Brewer - 6 of 20 most popular novelists = women between 1750-70. Porter - lapse of the licensing act = 1695 - harder to control literature thereafter. 1709 = copyright act (21yrs on existing prints, 14 on new). 1720's = 75 master printers in London, over 120 in 1761. First subscription Library = Liverpool, 1758.

Question 52

Politeness

Answer 52

Brewer - "a complete system of conduct"; court rejected in favour of city because visibility was central to politeness. Addison - "the appelation of a gentleman is never to be affixed to a man's circumstances, but to his behaviour in them" (soc INCLUSIVE concept) Sweet: mainly a discourse set out in conduct books - "an entire social code"; values: against profanities, gambling, drinking, reform societies, increased social intercourse between gentry and m/c's, accessible culture. Led to the decline of popular culture (cock-fights)

Question 53

Urban social spaces

Answer 53

Brewer - first coffee house = Oxford, 1650. 2000 by 1700. | Sweet - Lord Burlington built Assembly Rooms in York - for elite gatherings.

Question 54

Urban entertainments

Answer 54

Brewer - New Drury Lane Theatre, 1794, 3,300 guests; music - largest venues = Hickford's rooms and 83 Italian composers in London between 1675 and 1750; first public exhibition = 1760; pleasure gardens = respectable Renelagh and popular Vauxhall. Bowling green at Bury St Edmunds!

Question 55

Arts

Answer 55

Brewer - 83 Italian composers in London 1675-1750. 6 of the 20 most popular novelists between 1750-70 = women. Vogue for 'natural' art - Lancelot 'Capability' Brown and landscaping; Vanbrugh at Castle Howard.)

Question 56

Tourism

Answer 56

Brewer - 'tourist' coined in 1780/90's and quickly gained pejorative associations. The "claude glass" used to see 'snapshots' of the landscape, for painting miniatures (inherently ordering the landscape and viewing, not internalising). Places like Buxton vying with Bath.

Question 57

Politics

Answer 57

Stone - exclusive in nature: county MP's had to own land worth a minimum £600p.a. Bowen - only 1/6 of MP's = businessmen in 1790's (ie. still landed stronghold) Porter - between 1754 and 1790 12 counties never went to the polls... more practising of bribing voters etc. Local gov = "more exclusive, oligarchic, and unrepresentative"... by 1720 1/4 of peers held government/court offices. Walpole's total expenditure on 4 yrs luxuries = £90,000

Question 58

In/exclusivity of the landed gentry

Answer 58

Stone - 3/4 Cheshire gentry had wives from the same county in 1640. Endured because of marriage and preservation of estates; contested by Spring, who suggests that from Stone's survey 20% of elites = newcomers.

Question 59

Elite economic power

Answer 59

Bowen - "a small landed elite exercised economic influence out of all proportion to their actual numbers on the ground" Hoppit - were given a fiscal identity after the land tax of 1692.

Question 60

Urban employment

Answer 60

SWEET - 13.4% population employed in serving the middling sorts in towns.

Question 61

Men and industry

Answer 61

SWEET - 47/3% men employed in industry by 1840. | Formed 9762 Friendly Societies by 1803.

Question 62

Middling sorts/culture

Answer 62

SWEET - "the culture of the middling sorts was an essentially domestic one"; avg. income of £150-200p.a "the engine of commercial and industrial growth".

Question 63

Composition of urban England

Answer 63

Sweet - middling sorts =20-25% of any town; labouring sorts = 70%; 15% = skilled workers. Upper sorts = 2-3% of London. D+H = M/sort earned £2-300 p.a. Division of towns into slums and suburbs - eg. Edgbaston, Birmingham.

Question 64

Urban charity

Answer 64

Sweet: "an important part of civic consciousness"

Question 65

Elite culture:

Answer 65

Habbakuk - widespread taste for lavish building - eg. Blenheim palace (1702-22) by 1st Duke of Marlborough; Lyme Park made into a courtyard with innovative corridors in 1720 by Venetian architect Leoni.

Question 66

Urban/rural links

Answer 66

Porter - "techniques of exchange became faster, cheaper, and more reliable"; turnpike commissions, canal expansion and linking of major rivers (Thames with Trent (?) in 1778) (?)

Question 67

Consumerism

Answer 67

Sweet - 20% London's shops = luxury items. Biggest growing market = houses and decoration. Porter - "London was a bottomless pit for consumption"; "wedgwood played on cultural aspirations by promoting neo-classical designs in etrusian ware"

Question 68

Merchant elite

Answer 68

Bowen - founded on long-distance imperial trade. Via joint stock companies - such as the London-Chesapeake tobacco

Question 69

Financial elite

Answer 69

Bowen - in DOMESTIC trade; bankers... well regarded but also seen as corrupt by some. Bank of England founded in 1694 on joint stock principle.

Question 70

Sensibility

Answer 70

Popularised by Richardson (Pamela), emphasised human affection, not reason, in moral living. Authenticity, not show, spontaneity vs. artifice, private vs. public show - attacked urban living? Yet coexisted with politeness. Sentimentalism = humble; less verbal and more physical expression (sigh/tears). Dubbed as effeminate in 1790.

Question 71

Respectability

Answer 71

1820's; against vices (card playing...) poorer sorts socialising away from home - m/s at home tea drinking etc, playing host with consumables and showing off homes. Elites increasingly shunning the middling entertainments of the town in favour of country estates.

Question 72

Religion

Answer 72

Porter - increasingly secular? 1/4 of 10,000 parishes had no minister by the end of the century; only 1 in 3 families took communion. Manchester, 1750, 1 church and 20,000 people. Declining belief in witchcraft; insurance "silently challenged" providentialism.

Question 73

Regional culture

Answer 73

Brewer - eg's of Anna Seward at Lichfield, published in the 1780's, patronised local writers, feuded with Jonson... also Thomas Bewick - Newcastle writer.

Question 74

Entertainment open to all

Answer 74

Porter - sport "brought together lords and commons, tradition, recreation, and profit" - eg. creation of MCC in Marylebone in 1787.

Question 75

Reasons for urban changes

Answer 75

SWEET - sanitation - frequent outbreaks of Cholera (worst in 1832) - awareness of hygiene to the "health" of body politic. To encourage merchants etc. 1812 - first Smoke Abatement Act in Birmingham (health). Board of Health est. 1796 but ineffective Aesthetics - squares and straight streets - eg. Cavendish and Grosvenor families build Bloomsbury. Safely - lighting essential and provided privately via gas from 1807 in Manchester. Trade - closer regulation of markets under the mayor.

Question 76

POV's on industrial change

Answer 76

Cannadine - our opinion reflects the present - ie. now = evolutionary model vs. 1950's = war/econ fluctuations

Question 77

Women and textile industry

Answer 77

Burnette - women squeezed out of jobs? Arson on 1820's Glasgow cotton mills because of female workers. "The gender label attached to a job and the sex of the person who filled the job did not necessarily match". 50-70% cotton workers = women, but segregated into throstle-spinning, whilst men did mule-spinning. Parish apprentices = 30% female.

Question 78

Farm sizes

Answer 78

Overton - 1870 2 x 300 acre farms in Derbyshire, vs. 16 in Oxfordshire.