Influence of others

Question 2

Self-perception theory

Answer 2

• We dont neccessarily have any special insight in ourself. We have to figure that out just as we figure out: by assessing behaviour.

Question 3

Cognitive dissonance

Answer 3

• When our attitudes and behaviours do not line up, we experience a sense of discomfort. Something, usually the attitude, must be changed to relieve the dissonance.
  EX. They paid volunteers either one dollar or twenty dollars to lie about a boring task being fun. The well-paid volunteers suffered no cognitive dissonance because they could justify lying for payment. The poorly paid volunteers experienced cognitive dissonance, and later started to believe the task was more interesting than they initially thought it was.

Question 4

Persuasion

Answer 4

There are three important components:
1. Communicator
2. Message
3. Audience

Question 5

The communicator

Answer 5

• The individual giving the message
• Trustworthiness of the communicator is often considered which trumps expertise.

Question 6

One-sided argument

The message

Answer 6

• Only one side of the argument is presented. This tends to be more effective when the audience initially agrees with the communicator.
• No counter arguments

Question 7

Two-sided argument

The message

Answer 7

• Both sides of the argument is explained by the communicator.
• This tends to work on an audience that initially disagrees. Such an audience may appreciate acknowledge of their point of view and, following that, may be more opem to being brough around to a different one.
• Message is more effective when associated with a good feeling
  EX. Bikini model and car
• Fear can be powerful persuader but only if elicited in moderate doses (enough to for communicator to have an impact and to not doubt their credibility)

Question 8

The audience

Answer 8

• Different audiences respond to different things.

Question 9

Low-ball

Techniques in persuasion

Answer 9

• First get target to agree to something small. Once they’ve agreed and commited, they’re more likely to follow through even if you change the terms.

Question 10

Door-in-the-face

Techniques in persuasion

Answer 10

• Start by asking for something completely unreasonable and then greatly scale abck your request.
• Large requests make smaler request seem all the more reasonable.

Question 11

Foot-in-the-door

Techniques in persuasion

Answer 11

• Get your target to first agree to do something small. Following that, you can continue to ask for increasingly larger things.

Question 12

Obedience

Answer 12

• Humans appear to have a tendency towards obedience to authority.

Question 13

Stanley Milgram’s experiment

Answer 13

• They were assigned the role of a “teacher” and were instructed to administer electric shocks to a “learner” (who was actually an actor) whenever the learner made a mistake in a memory task. Learner also said they had a heart condition.
• he participants were told that the shocks ranged from mild to severe, with labels indicating intensity. In reality, no shocks were administered, but the learner (actor) would react as if in pain.
• Shockingly, many participants continued to administer what they believed were increasingly harmful shocks, despite the apparent distress of the learner and pleas to stop.
• Participants obeyed authority figures and continued to administer shocks,

Question 14

Conformity

Answer 14

• To adjust our behaviour or thinking to coincide to that of the group
• Conformity levels decrease with reduced group size and when dissention occurs within the group.

Question 15

Sherif’s norm (normative social) function

Answer 15

• Subjects gradually conformed to others opinion, regardless of starting point.
• Maintained by the social pressures and fear of rejection (akin to peer pressure)
  EX. Dot test

Question 16

Norms

Answer 16

• Unwritten but commonly accepted rules for how to behave

Question 17

Information function

Answer 17

• The role of others in proving information about an ambigusous situation

Question 18

Deindividualtion

Answer 18

• When people are part of a bigger group, they can sometimes lose sight of their individuality and just act as part of the crowd.
• Mob mentality: understand most circumstances, very law-abiding citizens participate in looting an volence towards others.

Question 19

Standford prison study

Answer 19

• Aimed to investigate the psychological effects of perceived power and authority in a simulated prison environment.
• Participants were randomly assigned to play the roles of either guards or prisoners in a simulated prison environment set up in the basement of Stanford University.
• The guards quickly became authoritarian and abusive, while the prisoners exhibited signs of extreme stress and emotional distress.
• The experiment was forced to end earlier than expected

Question 20

Environment

Answer 20

• Bad neighbourhoods encorage anonymity which in turn encourages bad behaviour

Question 21

Social loafing

Answer 21

• A person will exert less effort to acheive a goal when they work in a group rather than when they work alone.

Question 22

Risky shift

Group dynamic

Answer 22

• The observed tendency for people to make more daring decisions when they are in a group than when they are alone.
• However, it was later learned that this was because of group polarization and not actually risk.

Question 23

Group polarization

Answer 23

• Discussion in groups tend to strengthen original inclinations. If many individuals are leaning towards a somewhat risky plan, the group will fortify that stance.
• If individals are less open to risk, the group would be even less so.
• Discussions in a group force people to state their views and making such statements tends to make attitudes more extreme.

Question 24

Groupthink

Answer 24

• Sometimes group polarization is taken to an extreme when thinking or making decisions as a group discourages creatiity or individual responsibility.
• To reduce groupthink:
  1. Give members a second chance to disagree
  2. Assign a devil’s advocate
  3. Be impartial
  4. Sub-divide the group

Question 25

Altruism

Answer 25

• Unselfish regard for the welfare of others, a willingness to put your neck on the line to help.

Question 26

Norm of reciprocity

Answer 26

• We are expected to reciprocate when someone else treats us well.

Question 27

Norm of social responsibility

Answer 27

• As a member of a society, we are expected to contribute to its welfare in a positive way.

Question 28

Empathy-altruism hypothesis

Answer 28

• The idea that altruism results in empathy.
• Empathy refers to a sared sense of what another person is feeling

Question 29

Negative state relief model

Answer 29

• We help others because we would feel distressed (and guilty) if we didn’t

Question 30

Bystander effect

Answer 30

• Individuals are less leikely to offer help to a victim when other people are present. Also know as bystander apathy.

Question 31

Pluralistic ignorance

Answer 31

• When each individual in a group sees nobody responding in a given sitaution, they conclude that the situation is not an emergency.

Question 32

Diffusion of reponsibility

Answer 32

• In deciding whether we have to act we determine that somone else in the group is more qualified.

Question 33

Relational aggression

Answer 33

• Involves personal interactions. Rationally aggressive behaviours are engaged in an attempt to make other dislike somone.
  EX. Spreading rumors about someone or ignoring them.
• More commonly used by women.

Question 34

Hostile agression

Answer 34

• Involves behaviours that are directl confrontational
  EX. hitting soone or yelling at them.
• More commonly used by men.