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Human Diversity > Intelligence > Flashcards

Intelligence Flashcards

1
Q

Who was Galton?

A
  • First to measure intelligence
  • Charles Darwin cousin - studied hereditary
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2
Q

Galton’s hypothesis

A

There are individual differences in intelliegnce and it is possible to measure intelligence directly.

Intelligence is hereditary and caused by superior qualities passed down

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3
Q

How did Galton measure intelligence?

A

Responsiveness to stimuli
* reaction time
* keeness of sight and hearing
* ability to distinguish colours
slow reaction = unintelligent

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4
Q

Binet-Simon Scale (1905)

Alfred Binet

A

First intelligence test aiming to identify children who might require special education
* Series of short tasks related to everyday life
* Tests determined the child’s ‘mental age’ - an 8 year old child should have a mental age of 8

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5
Q

William Stern

A

In 1912, developed the intelligence quotient (IQ)
* IQ = (mental age ÷ chronological age) × 100.

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6
Q

Robert Yerkes

A

Developed the Army Alpha Test
* Group testing

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7
Q

What did Charles Spearmen discover?

A

Used factor analysis techniques to find positive correlations between intelligence tests
Proposed the concept of ‘g’ - general intelligence

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8
Q

Positive manifold

A

Positive correlation between all intelligence tests
* e.g. A person who does well on one intelligence test will perform well on a variety of cognitive ability tests (vocabulary, maths, spatial)
* Due to ‘g’

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9
Q

Spearman’s two-factor theory

A

‘g’ + ‘s’ = performance on intelligence test

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10
Q

What is ‘g’?

A

General intelligence
* The mental energy required to perform well on intelligence tests
* Underlies all the positive correlations
* Deeper fundamental mechanism that informs a number of intelligence abilities

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11
Q

What is ‘s’?

A

Specific abilities
* The specific type sof intelligence require to perform that task
* e.g. vocab, mathematical or spatial intelligence

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12
Q

What are the Wechsler Tests?

A

Standardised intelligence tests for the general population
People of all ages can take them
* Wechsler Adult Inteligence Scale (WAIS, 1955) - standardised among 2000 adults aged 16-75
* Wechsler Scale for Children (WISC, 1955) - for children aged 5-16

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13
Q

How do the Wechsler Tests work?

A
  • Administered on a 1:1 bais
  • Contain a number of subtests to measure several aspects of intelligence
  • Subtests start easy and then get harder and harder
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14
Q

Weschler Subtests

A

Full-scale IQ = Verbal IQ (VIQ) + Performance IQ (PIQ)
1. Verbal Comprehension
2. Working memory
3. Perceptual reasoning
4. Processing speed

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15
Q

Wechsler Test uses

A
  • Identify learning disorders
  • General intelligence measure
  • Assess cognitive functioning - people with brain injuries or psychiatric conditions
  • Diagnostic purposes
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16
Q

Wechsler test advantages

A
  • People of all ages can take it
  • Good test-retest reliability
  • Well-established - still used to this day
  • Useful clinical tool to identify and assess learning disorders and brain injury
  • Can measure both fluid and crystallised intelligence
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17
Q

Wechsler test disadvantages

A
  • Only assesses academic skills - ignores creativity, emotional intelligences, social skills, etc.
  • Culturally-bound: Cannot be performed on non-english speakers
  • Provides an overall measure, but not a person’s full view of their potential and abilities
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18
Q

Deviation IQ

A

The wechsler test was used to test large groups of people and identify norms across age groups
* IQ scores from tests were standardised across a normal distribution
* The overall IQ score is based on an individual’s deviation from standardised norms (IQ of 100)

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19
Q

Issues with intelligence tests and culture

A
  • Contains questions specific to only certain cultures
  • Intelligence means different things in different cultures
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20
Q

Raven’s Progressive Matrices

Raven (1938)

A

Culture-free test that is based on non-verbal problems that require abstract reasoning
* The overall IQ score is based on an individual’s deviation from standardised norms
* Only measures fluid intelligence

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21
Q

Theory of Primary Mental Abilities

(Thurstone, 1938)

A
  • First multi-factor theory
  • Reanalysed Spearman’s data (FA)
  • Discovered 7 factors that make up ‘g’
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22
Q

7 primary mental abilities

Thurstone (1938)

A
  1. Perceptual speed
  2. Associative memory
  3. Spatial visualisations
  4. Numbers
  5. Reasoning
  6. Verbal comprehension
  7. Word fluency
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23
Q

Cattell (1963)

A

‘g’ is comprised of two distinct components
1. Crystallised intelligence (Gc)
2. Fluid intelligence (Gf)

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24
Q

What is crystallised intelligence?

(Gc)

A

General knowledge and skill acquired throughout life
* Cumulative learning experience
* Related to a person’s cultural influences

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25
Q

Fluid intelligence

(Gf)

A

Primary reasoning ability
* Present at birth and stabilises in adulthood
* Problem solving and abstract reasoning
* Free from cultural influences

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26
Q

Three-stratum theory

(Carrol, 1993)

A

Hierarchical theory based on a factor analysis of 461 data sets (1927-1987)
Three hierachal levels of intelligence:
1. Stratum 1: Specific abilities - 69
2. Stratum 2: Braod factors - 8
3. Stratum 3: General intelligence

Systematic organisation and integration of cognitive abilities

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27
Q

Cattel-Horn-Carrol Theory (CHC)

A

The CHC model of intelligence shows an attempt to build a synthesis of several intelligence theories and measurements. Convergence between Cattell’s original work and Carroll’s factor-analytic work.
1. Stratum 1: narrow abilities
2. Stratum 2: Board abilities - 16
3. Stratum 3: General intelligence

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28
Q

Why is there Mutliple intelligences?

A

Intelligence tests only focus on cognitive abiltiies and performance measures.
This does not capture all aspects of intelliegence such as socio-emotional abiltiies and interpersonal skills
* Challenges the theory of ‘g’ as scientific findings don’t transfer to educational settings.

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29
Q

Theory of multiple intelligences

(Gardener, 1983)

A

Intelligence is the sum of 9 independent intelligences
* Independent
* Reside in seperate brain sections
* Not controlled by any central brain function
* Can interact and work together (e.g. dance and sing)

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30
Q

Gardener’s 9 intelligences (1983)

A
  1. Musical
  2. Bodily Kinesthetic
  3. Interpersonal
  4. Verbal-linguistic
  5. Logical-mathematical
  6. Naturalistic
  7. Intrapersonal
  8. Visual-spatial
  9. Existentialistic
31
Q

Critiques of Gardner’s Multiple intelligences

A
  • Some of the intelligences are hard to define and measure (e.g. intrapersonal)
  • Empirical research to support the theory is limited
  • Furnham, 2009: Intelligences are intercorrelated with each other and personality traits
  • Waterhouse, 2006: Different intelligences do not exist in seperate sections of the brain
32
Q

Emotional Intelligence

5 factors

(Goleman, 1995)

A
  1. Self-awareness: Identify one’s own emotions
  2. Self-regulation: Managing and controlling one’s emotions
  3. Motivation: Emotional states related to a drive for achievement
  4. Empathy: Assess and influence other’s emotions
  5. Social skills: Ability to sustain good interpersonal relationship
33
Q

Mayer & Salovey, 1993

A

Discrepancies in definitions and measurement of EI; the
distinction between personality and intelligence is blurred
* Intelligence involves a series of mental abilities
* Traits: behavioural preferences
* Knowing what a person feels was identified as mental ability not a behavioural tendency
* Enhanced processing of emotion-related information

34
Q

Creativity

A

The ability to generate ideas or products with novelty and usefulness

35
Q

Divergent Thinking

A

The core of creativity and the ability to:
* think outside of the box
* Reconceptualise old problems in new ways
* Come up with multiple solutions

Tested using the Torrance test - give simple shapes and ask to create a picture

36
Q

Creativity and intelligence

A

Threshold hypothesis: craetivity and IQ are correlated but only to a certain threshold
(Guildford, 1967)
Moderate correlation between creativity and intelligence → ~0.35 (Gerwig et al., 2021)

37
Q

Rational thinking

A

(Frederick, 2005): Bat and ball problem - Large numbers of highly select university students at MIT and Harvard gave the intuitive but incorrect answer

(Stanovich et al., 2020): IQ tests miss the cognitive ability of rational thinking

38
Q

Dysrationalia

Stanovich et al., 2020

A

The inability to think and behave rationally despite having adequate intelligence, to draw attention to a large domain of cognitive life that intelligence tests fail to assess.
* Positive manifold fails to address this ability

39
Q

Causes of dysrationalia

A
  1. Cognitive misers (processing problem): Humans default to processing mechanisms that require less computational effort, don’t interfere with cognition and need low concentration
  2. Mindware gap: People lack the specific knowledge, rules and strategies needed to think rationally
40
Q

Galton and intelligence

A

Convinced was due to genes instead of environment → nature approach

Heritability

41
Q

Eugenics

A

The scientific theory that humans can be improved through selective breeding - physical or mental qualities
* Brought harm to marginalised populations (e.g. black, disabled)

42
Q

Intelligence and cognitive ageing

(crystallied and fluid intelligence)

A

Crytallised: Steep increase in childhood, continues to rise for many years, plateuas about 40-50, declines
Fluid: Steep increase in childhood, declines from mid-20s

43
Q

Deary et al. (2013)

A

Intelligence is one of the most stable behavioural traits
Intelligence in younger years predicts later life intelligence

  • Correlation r = 0.54 (IQ at 11 and 90)
  • Correlation not 1 - environmental impacts
44
Q

Heritability

A

Heritability is a measure of how well differences in people’s genes account for differences in their phenotype

Heritability indicates to what degree genes influence the difference between the IQs of people

45
Q

50% heritability

A

A heritability of 50% means that genes explain 50% of the variation in intelligence in the population

46
Q

How to study heritability

A
  1. Family studies
  2. Twin studies
  3. Adoption studies
47
Q

Plomin (2004)

A

Simultaneous analysis of all family, adoption, and twin data showed a heritability estimate of about 50%

48
Q

Heritability of intelligence

A

As genetic similarity decreases, so do correlations with intelligence → genes
When twins/siblings are raised apart, level of IQ similarity is reduced → environment

Twins share more of an environment than siblings do → accounts for differences between DZ twins and siblings (genetic heritability is same)

49
Q

Haworth et al. (2010)

A

Heritability of intelligence is different at different ages
Heritability increases with age
* Transition from nurture to (more) nature
* Intelligence is one of the most heritable behavioural traits
* variation is caused by gene-environment interaction

50
Q

Gene-environment interaction

A

Our genes determine our environment and the interaction we choose
e.g. More intelligent = more likely to pursue higher education

  • Childhood: parents choose environments and interactions
  • Adulthood: freedom and choice to do what you want
51
Q

Critiques of the genetic perspective of intelligence

A
  1. Representativeness: twin and adoption studies make up majority of research - lots of limitations
  2. Complexity of genetic influence - how do genes produce intelligence?
  3. Assortative mating: Tendency to mate withb those that are similar to ourselves
52
Q

Assortative mating

Watson et al. (2004)

A
  • Studied the similarity of 291 newlywed couples
  • Measured, e.g., age, religious/political beliefs, education, intelligence
  • Correlations of couples’ IQs were around r = .40

Caused by the initial selection of a mate (assortment) rather than by couples becoming more similar to each other after living together (convergence)
Inflates observed similarity of intelligance in families

53
Q

Genetic perspective of intelligence

A
  1. Intelligence is one of the most stable behavioural trait - 0.54 not 1
  2. Intelligence is the most heritable traits - 50% not 100%

Genes play an importat role but environment must be an essential factor too - Intelligence is not fixed and malleable

54
Q

Neurobiological perspective of intelligence

A

Intelligence is associated with both structural (Brain volume, cortical thickness, white matter connectivity) and functional (processing) differences in the brain

55
Q

Brain size and intelligence

A

Size, complexity and organisation of brain has changed over time

Larger brain = more brain cells = better cognition

McDaniel (2005): meta-analysis of 37 studies, over 1,500 individuals - Positive correlation between brain volume and intelligence of 0.33

56
Q

Cortical thickness and intelligence

A

Increased thickness in childhood followed by suatained thinning (synaptic pruning) around puberty
Shaw et al. (2006): Cortex stays thicker for longer in high IQ children - More time to develop a complex and organised brain system

57
Q

(P-FIT) Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory

(Jung & Haier, 2007)

A

Intelligence is particularly dependent on a brain network that links the frontal to the parietal lobes
* White matter connectivity is correlated with IQ (Penke et al., 2012)
* Age-related deterioration of white matter tracks alongside age-related cognitive decline in IQ

58
Q

Brain function and intelligence

A

Intelligence involves a complex network of the whole brain

Brains of higher-IQ individuals tend to show less, rather than more activity when completing a task
* More efficient processing → not using the whole brain, less activity and pathways

59
Q

The Flynn effect

A

the substantial and sustained increase in intelligence scores over time

shows that it is unlikely that intelligence is determined by genes only

60
Q

Flynn (1987)

A
  • data from 20 countries
  • IQ scores were rising yearly across nations
  • Larger average increase on nonverbal tests compared to verbal
61
Q

Pietschnig & Voracek (2015)

A
  • Meta-analysis
  • 271 independent samples
  • Around 4 million participants
  • 31 countries

Worldwide IQ gains across 1909–2013 - Global increase in intelligence

Highest rise in non-verbal tests (fluid), lowest rise in verbal (crystallised)

62
Q

Flynn effect hypotheses

A

Increased intelligence due to:
1. Nutrition hypothesis: increased height and lifespan, improved health, decreased rate of infant disease, better vitamin and mineral nutrition
2. Cognitive simultaion hypothesis: improved visual analysis skills, improved schooling, changes in parental rearing styles, better-educated parents, smaller families, greater availability of educational toy

63
Q

Environmental influences

Neisser et al.(1996)

A
  1. Biological environment (prenatal, nutrition)
  2. Family environment (family size, birth order, group socialisation, SES)
  3. School and education
  4. Culture
64
Q

Prenatal

Environmental influence on IQ

A

Substance abuse of pregnant women
1. Smoking: Mothers smoked 20+ daily while pregnant - children had low IQ scores aged 18
2. Alcohol: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) - Deficits in abstract thinking, planning and organising information, memory and attention

65
Q

Nutrition

Environmental influence on IQ

A

Breastfeeding (Oddy et al., 2003): Breastfed children performed better on IQ tests compared to children never breast fed

  • When controlling for parental IQ or genetics, the effect is much smaller/ not present
  • Maternal intelligence is positively correlated with breastfeeding
66
Q

Family Size and birth order

Environmental influence on IQ

A
  1. Larger families = lower IQ
  2. First-born = Higher IQ - more undivided attention in childhood?
67
Q

Group socialisation

Environmental influence on IQ

A

Harris (1995): Non-shared factors outside the family may be more important in developing intelligence

  • As children get older, they are more influenced by life outside of family
  • Children may identify with several social groups based on age, gender, ethnicity, abilities, interests, personality and share norms with and be influenced by these groups
  • Peer acceptance
68
Q

(SES) Socio-economic status

Environmental influence on IQ

A

SES is significantly related with intelligence with r = 0.3 - 0.4
* Education, intelligence and income are all interchangeably linked - what influences what?

69
Q

Education

Environmental influence on IQ

A

Most important driver of intelligence is education

Ceci (1991): meta-analysis
* Children attending school more regularly showed higher IQ scores
* Students’ IQ scores decrease over the long summer holidays
* Each year of schooling is associated with a rise of 2.7 IQ points

Cause and effect - Intelligence is likely to influence school attendance, length of schooling and quality of school

70
Q

Serpell (2000)

Cultural influence

A

Western societies concept of intelligence:
1. Decontextualisation: disconnecting from a particular situation and thinking abstractly, in contrast to context-dependence
2. Quantification: understanding and expressing something in terms of quantity or numbers
3. Biologisation: emphasis on biological and evolutionary theories in understanding mind and behaviours

71
Q

Cultural influence on intelligence

A

Western and Asian cultures emphasise academic ability
Rural African cultures perceive practical ability as more important

Cultural differences may affect equal access to the skills and knowledge required by IQ tests - Test bias (Raven’s prohgressive matrices)

72
Q

Intelligence: Nature vs Nurture

A
  • Global changes in intelligence across generations
  • Gen-enbironment interaction
  • Nature with nurture - inetractionist approach
  • Intelligence is malleable
  • Environment can poistively and negatively impact
73
Q

What is intelligence?

A
  1. What is measure on an intelligence test - performance, cognitive functions
  2. “Intelligence is a very general mental capability that involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from experience

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