Interpersonal Relationships

Question 1

What is the largest predictor of attraction for men?

Answer 1

Physical attractiveness

Question 2

What is the largest predictor of attraction for women?

Answer 2

Status and signs of dominance

Question 3

What does the paternal investment theory explain?

Answer 3

Sex/gender differences in attraction

Question 4

How can we explain sex/gender differences in attraction?

Answer 4

Paternal Investment Theory

Question 5

The idea that sex differences can be understood in terms of the amount of time, energy, and risk (costs) to their own survival that males and females put into parenting versus mating

This is known as…?

Answer 5

Paternal Investment Theory

Question 6

Describe the Paternal Investment Theory

Answer 6

The idea that sex differences can be understood in terms of the amount of time, energy, and risk (costs) to their own survival that males and females put into parenting versus mating

Question 7

According to the Paternal Investment Theory, why do men prefer women who are physically more attractive?

Answer 7

Sex for men has a low cost (the only cost is to produce sperm)

Men sleep with attractive females as they were more likely to be fertile than less attractive females

Men are attracted to a certain body type with clear skin as these are desirable traits to pass on to offspring

Question 8

According to the Paternal Investment Theory, why do women prefer men who are dominant with a high status?

Answer 8

Sex for women has a high cost (9 months of pregnancy, takes lots of energy and effort to diet and to keep the baby healthy)

Women want men with status and a stable job/background to help support them with the overbearing parental investment costs

Question 9

What type of faces are judged as more attractive?

a. Symmetric
b. Asymmetric

Answer 9

a. Symmetric

Question 10

Why do men prefer female faces with high cheekbones and smooth skin?

Answer 10

Because it is the most sensitive indicator of high levels of oestrogen (healthy, fertile)

Question 11

Why do women prefer male faces with a large jaw, and prominent brow ridges and cheekbones?

Answer 11

Because it signals high levels of testosterone (masculine, dominant)

Question 12

What is the “ideal” type of body for men?

Answer 12

Upside-down triangle
- Narrow waist and broad chest and shoulders

Question 13

What is the “ideal” type of body for women?

Answer 13

Hourglass
- Shaped waist-to-hip ratio of 0.70 (associated with fertility and being able to give birth easier)

Question 14

People are cognitively biased towards attractive people.

Is this true or false?

Answer 14

True

Question 15

Attractive people are more extraverted, have higher self-confidence, and possess better social skills (Langlois et al., 2000)

Why does this happen?

Answer 15

• Society treats them positively due to their attractiveness
• They grew to be more confident and comfortable around people because everyone around them treats them positively
• They receive more help and cooperation from those around them
• Hence, they are confident to talk to others and are more sociable

Question 16

Why do attractive people receive better treatment from society?

Answer 16

Society tends to believe attractive people are morally good people, hence they receive better treatment, help and reassurance from others

This adds to their confidence and extraversion

Question 17

How has the internet impacted romantic relationships?

Answer 17

The internet has changed the early stages of a relationship (starting off a relationship)

Question 18

What is the problem with online dating? (in terms of having options of potential partners to choose from)

Answer 18

• Too many choices
• When given too many choices, people experience choice overload, in which they avoid making any decision rather than exerting the mental effort required to make a decision

Question 19

What is the term used to describe when people are given too many choices that they experience a choice overload, in which they avoid making any decision rather than exerting the mental effort required to make a decision (Lyengar, 2010)?

Answer 19

Choice paralysis

Question 20

Who proposed a study on online dating and choice paralysis?

Answer 20

Fishman, Lyengar, Kamenica and Simonson (2006)

Question 21

Describe Fishman et al.’s (2006) study on choice paralysis in speed dating

Answer 21

• Students attended a speed dating event that varied in size from 18 participants to 42 participants
• As the size of the choice set increased, they said ‘yes’ to fewer potential partners
• Women who attended speed-dating events at which they met a small number of men (9-14) were over 40% more likely to agree to a follow-up meeting than those who met a larger number of men (15-21)
• As choice increases, people end up being less satisfied with their ultimate partner choice and more prone to reverse their decision (D’Angelo & Toma, 2017)

Question 22

As choice increases, people end up being less satisfied with their ultimate partner choice and more prone to reverse their decision (D’Angelo & Toma, 2017)

Why does this occur?

Answer 22

Because they compare the different people they meet (potential partners) and wonder what life would be like if they chose a different person

Question 23

Define objectification in online dating

Answer 23

Online dating sites act as a “shopping” website for potential partners

People tend to see pictures and profiles as ‘sales pitches’ and that we reduce people to ‘products’

It is easy to reduce/categorise people on attributes (job, redheads, income) rather than emotional attributes (warmth, friendliness)

Question 24

What is the problem with online dating? (in terms of constructing profiles and creating profile descriptions)?

Answer 24

People often lie or overexaggerate in their personal dating profiles

Thus, when online dating partners meet in real life, one might feel disappointed in their potential partner because their profile descriptions did not meet their real-life attributes

Question 25

Hitsch, Hortacsu, & Airely (2010) investigated 21,745 users’ dating profiles and compared them to the ‘national average’ What were the findings on the height in peoples' dating profile descriptions?

Answer 25

Both men and women were taller than the national average in their descriptions (1.3 inches for men, 1 inch for women)

Question 26

Hitsch, Hortacsu, & Airely (2010) investigated 21,745 users’ dating profiles and compared them to the ‘national average’ What were the findings on the weight in peoples' dating profile descriptions?

Answer 26

Women claimed to weigh less than the national average (5.4 pounds for 20-29 age range and an average of 22.9 pounds for 50-59 year group)

Question 27

Toma, Hancock and Ellison (2008) compared users' profiles with their actual weight, height and age data with their online profile data What were the findings?

Answer 27

- 81% had lied about at least one of their characteristics (age, height, weight) - 60% lied about weight, 40% about their height, and 19% about their age.

Question 28

What hypothesis proposes this? People match with a romantic partner based on the same level of attractiveness

Answer 28

The Matching Hypothesis

Question 29

The matching hypothesis suggests people match with a romantic partner based on the same level of attractiveness Why is this?

Answer 29

People believe it is unrealistic to date someone who is 10x more attractive than them, so they go for someone more attainable

Question 30

How do individuals know where they are on the attractiveness hierarchy?

Answer 30

Feedback loop 1) You ask a bunch of people out on a date, starting with the most attractive 2) If they reject you, you move on to the second most attractive 3) You continue to do this until someone shows reciprocation 4) Based on the feedback you got by asking people of different attractiveness levels on a date, you will be able to know where your position is on the attractiveness hierarchy

Question 31

Who proposed evidence for the matching hypothesis?

Answer 31

Murstien

Question 32

What did Murstien do in their experiment investigating the matching hypothesis?

Answer 32

1) Took photos of 100 faces of 50 real couples 2) Group A were shown a pair of real couples and was asked to rate each member of the couple on attractiveness 3) Group B were presented with the same pictures, but with 2 faces randomly put together (not real couples) 4) Results = Faces of real couples were consistently rated as more alike than faces randomly assigned to couples

Question 33

Why do gay and lesbian couples differ from heterosexual couples in terms of choosing partners with similar attractiveness, ages and racial backgrounds (similarity)?

Answer 33

- People who are attracted to the same sex are working from a significantly smaller field of eligibles (smaller pool of potential partners) - They don’t have much choice of who they can date - They tend to compromise, especially in proximity because there are a limited number of gay people compared to straight people - Gay people are more willing to go for people from different ethnic backgrounds, ages, etc because they have experienced prejudice before and show a progressive attitude

Question 33

Why do gay and lesbian couples differ from heterosexual couples in terms of choosing partners with similar attractiveness, ages and racial backgrounds (similarity)?

Answer 33

- People who are attracted to the same sex are working from a significantly smaller field of eligibles (smaller pool of potential partners) - They don’t have much choice of who they can date - They tend to compromise, especially in proximity because there are a limited number of gay people compared to straight people - Gay people are more willing to go for people from different ethnic backgrounds, ages, etc because they have experienced prejudice before and show a progressive attitude

Question 34

Revealing information about oneself to another person is important in interpersonal relationships (Rubin, 1973) This is known as...?

Answer 34

Self-disclosure

Question 35

Define self-disclosure

Answer 35

Revealing information about oneself to another person

Question 36

When do people self-disclose information about themselves to others?

Answer 36

If they see themselves becoming friends or romantic partners with the other person

Question 37

What does the Meta-analysis suggest about self-disclosure (Collins & Miller, 1994)?

Answer 37

1) We disclose more to the people we like 2) We like people more after having disclosed to them 3) We like people who disclose more

Question 38

Self-disclosure usually operates according to a ...?

Answer 38

Norm of reciprocity (at least in the early days of the relationship) "If I tell you something about me, you have to tell me something about yourself"

Question 39

Self-disclosure is like a “delicate dance”. What does this mean?

Answer 39

- Not enough self-disclosure on a first date makes someone appear cold and unapproachable - Too much self-disclosure on a first date makes someone appear over-revealing and odd

Question 40

What things should you not disclose about yourself on a first date?

Answer 40

- Salary - Your relationship history - Bad habits - Body count - TMI personal info (eg. your family member’s death)

Question 41

Who proposed the Three-factor theory of love?

Answer 41

Hatfield and Walster

Question 42

What are the 3 factors listed in the three-factor theory of love?

Answer 42

1) a state of physiological arousal 2) an appropriate label for that arousal (cultural influence) (3) an appropriate love object

Question 43

Who proposed the bridge study investigating the role of arousal?

Answer 43

Dutton & Aron

Question 44

Describe the bridge study investigating the role of arousal

Answer 44

1) Male participants crossed a bridge There were 2 conditions: Group 1 = Shaky bridge Group 2 = Safe and wide bridge 2) At the end of the bridge, an attractive female experimenter waited 3) Participants performed the Thematic Apperception Test Ps were shown an ambiguous picture and were asked to write down a short story in which they comment on how the couple in the picture were thinking and feeling 4) Ps received her telephone number in case of questions

Question 45

Describe the results of the shaky bridge participants in the bridge study investigating the role of arousal

Answer 45

Group 1 = Shaky bridge - Induced arousal to attraction - Described pictures from the thematic apperception test in a more sexual way - e.g. The woman was having an affair and suddenly the husband walked in and is threatening to kill her lover - More likely to call the attractive female experimenter later and ask to meet up

Question 46

Describe the results of the stable bridge participants in the bridge study investigating the role of arousal

Answer 46

Group 2 = Stable and spacious bridge - No induced arousal to attraction - Described the pictures from the thematic apperception test in a rational, non-sexual way - e.g. The couple are arguing about money or the man’s gambling addiction - Less likely to call the attractive female experimenter later and ask to meet up

Question 47

What theory attempts to explain what keeps a relationship going?

Answer 47

Investment theory

Question 48

Who proposed the investment theory?

Answer 48

Rusbult

Question 49

Describe the investment theory of maintaining relationships

Answer 49

People decide whether they want to remain or leave the relationship based on their satisfaction with the relationship, the quality of alternative relationships and investments

Question 50

Set of theories: ‘Economic maintenance of relationships (e.g., social exchange theory, equity theory, investment theory) This is known as...?

Answer 50

Investment theory

Question 51

Which theory predicts that there are 3 main variables that predict a couple’s level of commitment to each other?

Answer 51

Investment theory

Question 52

What are the 3 main variables that predict a couple’s level of commitment to each other, according to the investment theory?

Answer 52

1) Satisfaction 2) Quality of alternatives 3) Investment

Question 53

When does one consider themselves satisfied with their relationship and choose to stay committed to their partners?

Answer 53

When the benefits of the relationship (i.e. good sex, company, money, fun) outweigh the cost of the relationship (i.e. arguments, loss of freedom, having to care for another)

Question 54

There are 2 ways to compare the quality of alternatives. What are they?

Answer 54

1) Comparison level 2) Comparison level for alternatives

Question 55

Is there a better relationship out there for me? This is known as...? a. Satisfaction b. Investment c. Quality of alternatives

Answer 55

c. Quality of alternatives

Question 56

How happy am I in this relationship? This is known as...? a. Satisfaction b. Investment c. Quality of alternatives

Answer 56

a. Satisfaction

Question 57

How much have I already put into this relationship? This is known as...? a. Satisfaction b. Investment c. Quality of alternatives

Answer 57

b. Investment

Question 58

There are 2 ways to compare the quality of alternatives. One is the comparison level Describe the comparison level

Answer 58

Comparing current levels of satisfaction with previous relationships Simply = They don’t feel as happy or they feel happier in their current relationship compared to their previous relationships

Question 59

There are 2 ways to compare the quality of alternatives. One is the comparison level for alternatives Describe the comparison level for alternatives

Answer 59

Comparing the current relationship to other possible relationships on offer Simply = They wonder how different their life would be if they get with other people

Question 60

Comparing the current relationship to other possible relationships on offer Simply = They wonder how different their life would be if they get with other people This is known as...?

Answer 60

Comparison level for alternatives

Question 61

Comparing current levels of satisfaction with previous relationships Simply = They don’t feel as happy or they feel happier in their current relationship compared to their previous relationships This is known as...?

Answer 61

Comparison level

Question 62

Level of resources put into a relationship which increases the costs of withdrawing from the relationship. e.g. - Financial (e.g., money, house) - Temporal (e.g., been with him/her 10 years) - Emotional (e.g., self-disclosure, welfare of the kids) This is known as...?

Answer 62

Investment

Question 63

Describe investment in a relationship.

Answer 63

When the level of resources put into a relationship increases the costs of withdrawing from the relationship e.g. - Financial (e.g., money, house) - Temporal (e.g., been with him/her 10 years) - Emotional (e.g., self-disclosure, welfare of the kids)

Question 64

According to the relationship commitment theory (Rusbuilt, 1983), the more satisfied a person is with their current relationship, the (more/less) likely they are to remain in that relationship

Answer 64

More likely

Question 65

According to the relationship commitment theory (Rusbuilt, 1983), the less satisfied a person is with their current relationship, the (more/less) likely they are to commit to that relationship

Answer 65

Less likely

Question 66

According to the relationship commitment theory (Rusbuilt, 1983), the lower the quality of alternatives in their current relationship, the (more/less) likely they are to commit to that relationship

Answer 66

More likely

Question 67

According to the relationship commitment theory (Rusbuilt, 1983), the higher the quality of alternatives in their current relationship, the (more/less) likely they are to commit to that relationship

Answer 67

Less likely

Question 68

According to the relationship commitment theory (Rusbuilt, 1983), the more prior investments made in their current relationship, the (more/less) likely they are to commit to that relationship

Answer 68

More likely

Question 69

According to the relationship commitment theory (Rusbuilt, 1983), the fewer prior investments made in their current relationship, the (more/less) likely they are to commit to that relationship

Answer 69

Less likely

Question 70

Why are satisfaction, quality of alternatives and investment factors not reliable predictors for commitment in a relationship?

Answer 70

Abused women stay even if they have low satisfaction because they have limited/poor-quality alternatives (less education, no way of supporting themselves) Most of the time, they have invested more in their relationship to be able to leave (long time, children)

Question 71

Lower quality of alternatives and greater investment size predicted: a. Less commitment + Less frequent leaving behaviour b. More commitment + Less frequent leaving behaviour c. More commitment + More frequent leaving behaviour d. Less commitment + More frequent leaving behaviour

Answer 71

b. More commitment + Less frequent leaving behaviour

Question 72

Who proposed 4 factors that characterise the strategies that people employ when their relationships break down?

Answer 72

Baxter

Question 73

What were the 4 factors Baxter proposed that characterise the strategies that people employ when relationships break down?

Answer 73

1) Withdrawal/Avoidance 2) Manipulation 3) Positive-tone strategies 4) Open confrontation

Question 74

Withdrawal/Avoidance is one of the 4 factors Baxter proposed that characterise the strategies that people employ when relationships break down. Explain Withdrawal/Avoidance

Answer 74

- Gentle way to avoid the offer from the other party - Only works with casual relationships to avoid conflict - Not answering texts or calls, ghosting

Question 75

Manipulation is one of the 4 factors Baxter proposed that characterise the strategies that people employ when relationships break down. Explain Manipulation

Answer 75

- Instead of telling your partner you want to break up, you emotionally manipulate them into initiating the breakup with you - To make it seem like you're not the bad person

Question 76

Positive-tone strategies are one of the 4 factors Baxter proposed that characterise the strategies that people employ when relationships break down. Explain Positive-tone strategies

Answer 76

- Coming clean - “It’s me, not you” - Positive, to not hurt the other person

Question 77

Open confrontation is one of the 4 factors Baxter proposed that characterise the strategies that people employ when relationships break down. Explain Open confrontation

Answer 77

- Being completely honest with your partner that you're not happy with the relationship - Coming clean and initiating the break-up yourself

Question 78

Instead of telling your partner you want to break up, you emotionally manipulate them into initiating the breakup with you (to make it seem like you're not the bad person) This is known as...?

Answer 78

Manipulation

Question 79

Being completely honest with your partner that you're not happy with the relationship as well as coming clean and initiating the break-up yourself. This is known as...?

Answer 79

Open confrontation

Question 80

This is a gentle way to avoid the offer from the other party. It only works with casual relationships to avoid conflict and involves not answering texts or calls, ghosting This is known as...?

Answer 80

Withdrawal/Avoidance

Question 81

This involves coming clean with your partner and saying “it’s me, not you” and other positive tones in order to not hurt the other person This is known as....?

Answer 81

Positive-tone strategies