Intro Notes Flashcards
1
Q
Anatomy
A
Study of structure
2
Q
Gross Anatomy V. Microanatomy
A
GA- structures that can be seen without a microscope
MA- structures that need a microscope
3
Q
Regional Anatomy V. Systemic anatomy
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RA-orders the body as major segments
SA-orders the body in organ systems
4
Q
Clinical (appplied) anatomy
A
Emphasizes aspects using structure and function that are important in health sciences. Uses regional and systemic approaches
5
Q
Surface anatomy
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Study of what lies under the skin and what structures via touch (palpation)
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Anatomical position
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Head, eyes, and toes directed anteriorly (forward)
Arms adjacent to the sides with palms facing anteriorly
Lower limbs fairly close together with the feet parallel
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Q
Median plane (median sagittal; midsagittal plane )
A
Goes through longitudinally thru the midline of the body dividing the body into equal parts
8
Q
Sagittal planes
A
Vertical planes pass thru the body dividing the body into left and right parts
9
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Frontal planes (coronal)
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Vertical planes passing thru the body which divide the body into anterior and posterior parts
10
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Transverse planes
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Horizontal planes passing thru the body dividing it into superior and inferior parts
11
Q
Longitudinal sections
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Runs lengthwise or parallel to the long axis of the body or its parts
12
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Transverse (cross) sections
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Slices of the body or its parts that are cut at right angles to the longitudinal axis
13
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Superior v. Inferior
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S- near the topmost point of the cranium
I- Near the sole of the foot
14
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Posterior (dorsal) V. Anterior (ventral)
A
P-back surface of the body or near it
A- Front surface of the body or near it
15
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Medial V. Lateral
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M-Near the median plane of body
L- farther away from the median plane of body
16
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Superficial v. Deep
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S- near body’s surface
D- far from body’s surface
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Proximal V. Distal
A
P- near attachment of a limb
D- Far from attachment of a limb
18
Q
Dorsum
A
Protrudes anteriorly from body
19
Q
Plantar
A
Surface of foot (the sole)
20
Q
Bilateral V. Unilateral
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B- right & left structures (paired)
U- one side only (no pair)
21
Q
Ipsilateral V. Contralateral
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I- on the same side of the body as another structure
C- opposite side of the body relative to another
22
Q
Flexion V. Extension
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F- bending or decreasing the angle btwn bones or parts
E-straightening or increasing angle btwn bones or parts
23
Q
Dorsiflexion V Plantarflexion
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D- flexion at the ankle joint (heels down)
P- bends the foot down, heels up
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Q
Hyperextension
A
Extension of a limb or part beyond the normal limit
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Abduction V. Addiction
Ab- moving away from median plane
Add- moving towards the median plane
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Rotation
Medial rotation
lateral rotation
R- Turning a part of the body around its longitudinal axis
MR- brings the anterior surface of a limb closer
LR-takes the anterior surface away from the median plane
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Circumduction
A circular movement wh/ involves multiple movements wh/ cause the body to move in a circle
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Lateral flexion
An abduction only the neck & trunk which get directed anteriorly wh/ causes the midline of the body to become bents sideways
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Pronation V. Supination
P- rotates medially so that the palm of the hand faces posteriorly & it’s dorsum faces anteriorly
S- rotates the radius latterly & uncrosses it from ulna wh/ returns it to anatomical position
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Eversion v. Inversion
E- Move the sole of the foot away from the median plane
I- move the sole of the foot towards the median plane
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Protrusion V. Retrusion
P- anteriorly protruding the chin, lips or tongue
R- opposite, double chin
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Protraction V. Retraction
P- Anterolateral movement of the scapula on the thoracic wall
R- opposite
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Tissue
An organized, recognizable collection of cells, material between cells that function as a unit
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Epithelium
Cells are closely packed w/ very little intercellular matrix
Free surface not in contact w/ other cells
Protection, secretin, absorption
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Connective tissue
Intracellular matrix that contains collagenous, elastic, and or reticular fibers, 3 types
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Hyaline cartilage
fibrocartilage
Elastic cartilage
HC- found in ribs, nose, larynx, trachea; precursor of bone tissue
FC- very strong, found in intervertebral discs, joint capsules, ligaments
EC- imparts elasticity to an organ; found in external earl, epiglottis, & larynx
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Muscle tissue
Nervous tissue
M- long slender cells- muscle fibers- ability to contract in order to produce movements of body parts
N- made of neurons and neuroglia (glial cells)
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Viscera
Organs w/in the ventral body cavity.
Not applied to blood or lymphoid vessels or nerves
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Skin
Two main layers are epidermis and dermis
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Epidermal layers
Epithelial tissue- keratinized
Superficial layer- provides protection, tough horny layer
Basal layer-pigmented
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Dermis
Mostly connective tissue with interlacing elastic & collagen fibers
Highly vascular
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Subcutaneous
-AKA superficial fascia
- deep to the dermis
-consists of loose connective tissue & stored fat
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Hair follicles
Arrector (arrector pili) muscle
Sebaceous glands
Sweat glands
-produce hair s & regulate hair glrowth
-contraction erects hairs and causes goose bumps
-secrete oily product onto hair and skin surface
- produce a watery secretion, evaporation aids heat loss
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Sensory receptors
Arterioles
- Meissner’s corpuscles, for detecting light touch
-dilation or constriction promotes heat loss or retention, respect
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Integumentary system functions
Protection
Containment for body’s tissues, organs, & fluids
thermoregulation
Sensation
Synthesis & storage of Vitamin D
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Fascias
Superficial fascia
Deep fascia
-constitute the wrapping, packing, & insulating material of the deep structures of the body
- is subcutaneous tissue
-dense, organized connective tissue layer, devoid of fat, covers most of the body parallel to the skin & subcutaneous tissue
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Investing fascia
Intermuscular septa
Subserous fascia
Retinacula
- covers or “clothes” individual muscles & neuromuscular bundles
-divide muscles into groups - contained w/in fascia compartments- & extend centrally to attach to bones
- lies between musculoskeletal walls & serous membranes lining body cavities
- hold tendons in place during joint movements
48
Bursa
Tendon sheath
- a closed normally collapsed, sac of serous membrane- secreting fluid to lubricate a internal surface- allows one structure to move freely over another; near joints or between bone
- an elongated bursa, wrapped around tendon, anchors tendon in place
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Skeletal System Functions
-Support
-protection for vital structures
-Mechanical basis for movements
-Storage for salts
-a continuous supply of new blood cells
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Skeletal system
Axial skeleton
Appendicular skeleton
-composed of cartilages & bones
- bones of the head, neck, trunk
- the limbs, girdles, attach limbs bones
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Lone bones
Short bones
flat bones
Irregular bones
Sesamoid bones
-tubular (ex: femur)
-Cuboidal (ex: wrist & ankle)
-Usually protective (Ex: cranial bones)
-not long, short, or flat they stick out (ex: vertebrae)
- develop in tendons, where tendons cross ends of long bones of limbs (ex: patella)
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Cartilage
Bone
Periosteum
Articular Cartilage
-semirigid, avascular CT; forms parts of skeleton where flexibility is required
-living, highly specialized, hard form of CT
-fibrous CT covers each bone except with articulating surfaces (called perichondrium in a cartilage)- tendons & ligaments
-smooth, low-friction surface for movement of bone- such as ball & sock joints
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Tendons V. Ligaments
Tendons = muscles to bone
Ligaments = bones to bones
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Spongy (trabecular) bone
Compact one
Red/yellow bone marrow
-formed from spicules (trabeculae), more or larger spaces, central mass of bone, replaced via medullary cavity (towards middle), deep to compact bone
-fewer & smaller spaces, superficial thin layer surrounds spongy, provides strength for weight bearing
-found w/in medullary cavity (yellow = fatty) & between spicules of spongy (red = blood & other cells)
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Body
Capitulum
Condyle
Epicondyle
- mass of a bone (= shaft)
-small, round, articular head (joints connect)
- rounded, knuckle-like articular area occurs in pairs
- eminence superior or adjacent to a condyle
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Crest
Facet
Foramen
Fissure
-ridge of bone
-smooth flat area, usually covered with/ cartilage, bone articulates w/ another bone
-slit-like passage thru bone
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Groove
Head
Line
Neck
Notch
-elongated depression or furrow
-large, round articular end
-linear elevation, sometimes a ridge
-narrow portion adjacent to the head
-indentation @ edge of a bone
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Process
Protuberance
Spine
-an extension or projection from a bone
-bulge or projection of a bone
-thorn-like process
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Trochlea
Tubercle
Tuberosity
-spool-like articular process, acts as a pulley
-raised eminence
-rounded elevation
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What’s Mesenchyme
embryonic CT (all bones develop from this)
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Intramembranous ossification V. Endochondral ossification
IO- mesenchyme -> bone; embryonic -> fetal period
EO-Mesenchyme -> cartilage -> bone
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Endochondral Ossification steps
1. Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondroblasts -> forms cartilaginous model
2. Mid-region of bone starts to calcifies, blood vessels & bone-forming cells = primary ossification center-> bone tissue replaces cartilage-> diaphysis
3. Secondary Ossification center appears at ends of bones forming the epiphyses
4. Epiphyseal plate (Growth plates) lie between diaphysis & epiphyses where growth of bone occurs -> diaphysis & epiphyses don’t fuse until adult size is reached
5. Once adult size is reached the fusion or seam where diaphysis & epiphyses fused is called epiphysial line
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Articulation (Joint)
Junction between 2 or more bones , 3 classifications based on structure (fibrous, cartilaginous, & synovial) & function (synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, & diarthrosis)
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Fibrous Joints
Cartilaginous Joints
- contains no joint cavity & have articulating bones held via fibrous CT- 3 subtypes
-contain no joint cavity & have articulating bones held together via cartilage (2 subtypes)
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Synovial joints
- articulating joints united via joint (articular) capsule composed of a fibrous layer via serous membrane (synovial membrane). -6 subtypes
-Joint capsule spans & encloses a fluid-filled space called joint cavity (joint space; articular cavity)
-joint cavity contains synovial fluid
-joint reinforced by several ligaments either extrinsic (separate from joint) or intrinsic (thicken portion of joint)
-free movement of articulating bones , some have fibrocartilaginous articular disc (meniscus)
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Suture
Syndesmosis
Gomphosis
-found in cranium, extremely short lengths of fibrous tissue btwn bones that they are held close together, either interlocking or overlapping- no movement
- bones united along a sheet of fibrous tissue, either a ligament or fibrous membrane, allows for slight movement
-found btwn the root of a tooth & socket of a jawbone, peg-like process held into a socket by short fibrous tissue
-Subtypes of fibrous joints
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Synchondrosis
Symphysis
-uniting cartilage is hyaline , found between epiphysis & diaphysis of a growing bone, joint is usually temporary & essentially allows no movement
-uniting cartilage is fibrocartilage, allows slight movement
-Subclasses of cartilaginous joints
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Plane joints
Hinge joints
Saddle joints
*subs of synovial
-opposed surfaces of bones R flat or almost, tight joint capsules, permit limited gliding/sliding movements in plane of articular surfaces (most intercarpal joints of wrist)- uniaxial
-joint capsule is thin & lax anteriorly & posteriorly where laterally placed collateral ligaments, flexion & extension-uniaxial
-shaped like a saddle (opposing articular); allow abduction & addiction as well as flexion & extension, bilateral (thumb)
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Condyloid joints
Ball & socket Joints
Pivot joints
-allow flexion & extension AWA abduction & adduction, movement in one plane is usually greater than the other plane, (fingers)- ~ biaxial
-spheroidal surface of one bone moves w/in the socket of another, multiaxial
-rounded process of bone rotates w/in a sleeve or ring, allows rotation around central axis. Uniaxial
*synovial joints subs
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Synarthrosis
Amphiarthrosis
Diarthrosis
-joint allowing no movement (skull joints)
-joint allowing slight movement (intervertebral disc)
-a joint allowing free movement, subclasses (3)
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Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial
-allow movement only in one plane around single axis
-allow movement in only two planes
-movement in multiple planes
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Vasculature & innervation of Joints
- joints receive blood from articular arteries often anastomose (commuicate) form networks of arteries
-synovial joints R drained via articular veins originating synovial membrane
-innervated with nerves, transmit sensations of pain & of proprioception, Hilton Law states nerves that supply a joint supplies the muscle
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Skeletal (skeletal striated) muscle
Smooth muscle
Cardiac (cardiac striated) muscle
-cylindrical, very long, multinucleated, striated, typically voluntarily controlled, usually attached to bones
-Cells are shorter than skeletal, spindle-shaped, unstriated, single nucleus, not controlled voluntarily, found in walls of hollow organs
-cells are shorter than skeletal muscle, branched, striated, single nucleus, not controlled voluntarily, found in heart
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Somatic muscles
Visceral muscles
-located in the body wall & limbs
-located in the walls of the blood vessels & in walls of hollow organs of the body cavities
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Head (belly)
Aponeurosis
Origin
Insertion
-reddish, fleshy, contractile part
-broad, flat, sheet-like tendon
-less movable point of attachment of a muscle to skeleton
-more movable point of attachment of a muscle to skeleton
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Muscle cells are:
Fascicles are:
Sarcolemma is:
Muscle fibers
Muscle fibers bound together
Plasma membrane of an individual muscle fiber
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Epimysium (investing fascia)
Perimysium
Endomysium
-surrounds the entire muscle
-surrounds each fascicle
- surrounds each muscle fiber
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Flexor
Extensor
Abductor
Adductor
-muscle contracts producing flexion
-produces extension
-produces abduction
-produces adduction
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Levator
Depressor
Tensor
Rotator
-produces upper movement of a body part
-produces downward movement of a body part
-makes a body part more rigid
-moves a bone around its longitudinal axis
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Pennate Muscles
Fusiform muscles
Convergent muscles
Fiber or fascicle arrangement is feather-like
Spindle shaped with a round, thick belly & tapered ends
Arise from a broad area & converge to form a single tendon
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Quadrate muscles
Circular or sphincteral muscles
Multiheaded or multibellied muscles
-have four nearly equal sides
-surround a body opening or orifice, constricts when contracted
-more than one head of attachment or more than one contractile belly
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Reflexive contraction
Tonic contraction
Phasic contraction
RC-Activity of many muscles is automatic (reflexive) & not voluntary- knee jerk
TC- even when relaxed the muscle is slightly contracted (TC or. Muscle tone), only when conscious, doesn’t produce movement or active resistance but gives it firmness- stability
PC- two types isometric & isotonic
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Isometric contraction
Isotonic contraction
IMC- muscle length remains the same- no movement; but force (muscle tension) is increased to resist gravity or other force-
IC- Muscle changes length in relationship to produce movement (2 types)
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Concentric contraction
Eccentric contraction
CC- movement occurs as a result of shortening (moving towards origin)
EC- a contracting muscle lengths (relaxation)
*When the main muscle = prime mover; undergoes concentric contraction, its antagonist undergoes eccentric
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Prime mover (agonist)
Fixator
Synergist
Antagonist
PM-main muscle responsible for sp. movement
F-steadies/fixes proximal parts of a limb thru Isometric Contraction while movement occurs in distal parts
S-works with the prime mover either directly (same movement) or indirectly (fixator)
A- opposes the action, contracts eccentrically, relaxes
86
Pulmonary circulation V. Systemic circulation
PC- right half of heart to lungs to left half of heart
SC- left half of heart to all body tissues to right halt of heart
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Arteries
Veins
Capillaries
A-carries blood away form the heart, both elastic & muscle fibers in walls, branches into smaller tubes called arterioles
V-carries blood towards heart, thinner walls, contains valves (prevents backflow), smaller tubes called venules
C-connect arterioles to venules, does exchange/gas of substances, btwn tissues & blood
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Tunica intima
Tunica media
Tunica Adventita
-inner lining consisting of a single layer of extremely flattened epithelial cells, the endothelium, supported via delicate CT
-middle layer consisting primarily of smooth muscle
-outer connective tissue layer or sheath
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Accompanying veins
Vascular sheath
-(venae comitantes)- multiple veins that accompany deep arteries
- fascial sheath that surround accompanying veins & their deep arteries that they accompany
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What’s Anastomosis
Arteriolovenular (arteriovenus) anastomosis
- communication btwn two blood vessels that would not normally be present. Often allows collateral circulation (alt blood pathways) *occurs more with veins that with arteries
-between a vein & artery; bypasses capillaries
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Lymphoid (lymphatic) system
Drains surplus fluid, proteins, bacteria, debris; from extracellular spaces to bloodstream. Lack of drainage results in edema (swelling). Major part of body defense, foreign particles drain to lymph nodes and lymphocytes dispatch to area. Absorption & trans port of dietary fat via lacteals- R special lymphatic capillaries.
92
Lymphatic plexuses
-networks of lymphatic capillaries in extracellular (intracellular) spaces of most tissues. Formed via highly attenuated endothelium lacking basement membrane.- permeable to things that can’t enter blood capillaries. Fount where blood capillaries are; except in teeth, bone, marrow, & CNS.
93
Lymphatic vessels
Lymph trunks
Lymph nodes
- thin-walled with abundant valves body-wide to drain lymph from lymphatic capillaries.
-are large collecting vessels that receive lymph from vessels (lymphatic)
-small masses of lymphatic tissue that are located along the course of both superficial & deep lymphatic vessels; the lymph is filled via these nodes on its way to the cardiovascular system
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Lymph
Lymphocytes
Lymphoid organs
-fluid that enters the lymph capillaries & conveyed via the vessels; usually clear, watery, slight yellow- similar composition of plasma
-circulating cells of the immune system that react against foreign invading material
-organs & body regions which are produced lymphocytes- thymus, RBM, spleen, tonsil, & lymphoid nodules in walls of digestive tract
95
Superficial lymphatic vessels V. Deep lymphatic vessels
-found in subcutaneous tissue converge towards & follows the veins of tissue, drain into deep lymphatic vessels
-accompany arteries of tissue, receive the lymph drainage of internal organs
96
Lymphatic trucks dump into:
Cisterna chyli
-Right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct
-Lower 1/2 of body merge in abdomen forms a collecting sac
97
Why is the lymphoid system important clinically
Provides predictable route- find the source of cancer cells by following them, if you find a tumor in the lymph & its not the primary
Inflammation of lymphatic vessels &or enlargement of lymph nodes is indicator of injury, infection, disease
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Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Neurolemma
Epineurium
Nerve
The nervous system that is not the brain or spinal cord
-surround the axons of neurons
-includes fatty tissue, blood vessels, & lymphatics
-bundle of axons outside of the CNS, the CT holding bundle together & bld vessels (vasa nervorum) serving the whole strucutre
99
Axons are additionally surrounded via CT layers (deep -> superficial )
Endoneurium
Perineurium
Eppineurium
100
Myelinated nerve fiber V. Unmyelinated nerve fibers
-neurolemma consits of multi schwann cells sp to an individual axon, organized into a continuous serious of cells that form myelin
-multiple axons are separately “embedded” w/in cytoplasm of a single, Schwann cell- no myelin
101
Afferent (sensory) fibers
Efferent (motor) fibers
Ganglion
-of the PNS convey neural impulses TO the CNS from the sense organs and other parts of the body
-of the PNS convey neural impulses FROM the CNS to effector organs
- a collection of neuron cell bodies outside of the CNS, there are both motor (autonomic) ganglia & sensory ganglia
102
Somatic nervous System
- its Motor fibers (somatic) supply skeletal muscles
- its sensory fibers (somatic sensory, general sensory, fibers) supply the sensory receptors that detect temp, touch, pressure, and pain from the skin, skeletal muscle, tendons, & joints
103
Autonomic nervous system
-Its motor fibers (visceral efferent, or visceral motor, finer)- supply smooth muscles, cardiac muscle tissue, & glands
-its sensory fibers (visceral afferent, or visceral sensory, fibers) supply sensory receptors in viscera, blood vessels, & glands that detect pain (in viscera) and information about body’s internal environment (from receptors in hollow organs)
104
Sensory fibers are in:
Motor fibers are in:
-cranial or spinal sensory ganglia
-w/in CNS gray matter,first & second neurons are w/in CNS and outside CNS, respectively
105
Cranial nerves
Spinal (segmental) nerves
Posterior (dorsal) root
Anterior (ventral) root
Spinal nerve
-nerves exiting the cranium
-nerves exiting the vertebral column thru intervertebral foramina
-consists only of incoming SENSORY (afferent) fibers
-consists only of outgoing MOTOR (efferent) fibers
- Where the posterior & ventral roots combine
106
Posterior ramus
Anterior ramus
-supplies nerve fibers to synovial joints of the vertebral column, deep muscles of the back, & the overlying skin
-supplies nerve fibers to the much larger raining area: anterior & lateral regions of the trunk & upper & lower limbs a
*both of them are mixed- carry both sensory & motor fibers
107
Dermatome
-the unilateral area of the skin applied via single spinal nerve (left or right)
-you have double coverage so a single posterior root or spinal never damage rarely results in numbness over whole area
-Dermatomal innervation is important bc it allows clinician to determine wheaten a particular spinal nerve/spinal cord segment is functioning normally
