Introduction to Drugs and Behavior Flashcards
(85 cards)
1
Q
Do other animals use drugs?
A
Many animals and humans ingest substances that change the way the mind and body work- these substances change their subjective experience and objective behavior. Other species (like deer) can ingest drugs and get high, but humans are the only species that have figured out to synthesize drugs
2
Q
Psychopharmacology
A
The study of how drugs affect mood, perception, thinking, or behavior. Relates psychology and pharmacology, and therefore is concerned without the actions of drugs impact psychological processes
3
Q
Psychoactive drugs
A
Drugs that affect mood perception, thinking, and/or behavior by acting on the nervous system
4
Q
Neuropsychopharmacology
A
How drugs impact cognition and behavior- another name for this course. Another name for psychopharmacology
5
Q
Why is the study of drugs and behavior important? (3)
A
- Many people have been affected by drugs and drug misuse
- Recreational use and misuse of drugs
- Drug use to treat psychological disorders/difficulties- how do these drugs work, and which drugs are effective for specific conditions
6
Q
Who is considered a psychopharmacologist? (3)
A
- Medical practitioners- psychiatrists
- Researchers- study the effects of psychoactive drugs in animals and in humans
- Behavioral pharmacology- part of a subfield of psychology called behavior analysis
7
Q
What percentage of people use an antidepressant?
A
12% of people over the age of 12
8
Q
How many people use anti-anxiety medication, sedative, or hypnotic drugs?
A
More than 17 million people
9
Q
How many people use tobacco products?
A
72 million
10
Q
How many people use prescribed pain relievers?
A
29 million
11
Q
How many people consume alcohol?
A
More than half of people over the age of 18
12
Q
How many people have used cannabis?
A
47.5% over the age of 12
13
Q
How many people use caffeine products?
A
90% of adults worldwide
14
Q
Behavioral pharmacology
A
Subfield of Applied Behavioral Analysis
15
Q
What is a drug?
A
A substance, other than food, that when ingested or administered, alter the way the mind/body works. It changes physiological functioning. Administered- not produced naturally by the body. For example, a neurotransmitter naturally produced by the body is not a drug, but it is considered a drug if it is administered externally to treat a disease
16
Q
Instrumental use of psychoactive drugs
A
Using a drug for a specific purpose. Usually occurs with psychotropic drugs. Can also be non-medical- drinking coffee to “wake up”- a drug can be instrumental and recreational
17
Q
Psychotropic drugs
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Drugs used for treating mental disorders, like depression or schizophrenia
18
Q
Recreational use of psychoactive drugs
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Using a drug for fun, to experience its effects. Use of a drug can be both instrumental and recreational
19
Q
Drug misuse
A
Drugs that are meant to be used instrumentally, but are used recreationally. Drugs can also be misused and be instrumental use
20
Q
Brand name
A
The trademarked name of a drug- whoever created the drug first usually gets the brand name. Tylenol is a brand name
21
Q
Generic name
A
Non proprietary name that indicates the class of drug or its chemical structure. For example, Drugs with “apine” or “azine” in their names are antipsychotics. Generic drugs are very similar chemically to the brand name and produce basically the same effect. Acetaminophen is a generic name
22
Q
Purposes of generic names (2)
A
- Classification for a drug
- Distinguishes it from other drugs in a class
23
Q
Chemical name
A
Details the drug’s chemical structure, so that a chemist will know exactly what is in the drug. Typically only used in scientific settings.
24
Q
Street names
A
Usually for recreational drugs. Benign sounding words that keep others from understanding what is going on, sometimes refer to the side effects of the drugs (ecstasy)
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Dose
Amount of the drug divided by an individual's body weight. If the dose of a drug is one gram/kg and a rat weighs 500 grams, the dose given would be .5 grams
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How is the dosage of OTC drugs determined?
Drugs assume an average adult’s body weight- people are generally instructed to take 1-2 tabs every 4-6 hours. This has created a lot of controversy in medical research- everyone varies in weight and other characteristics
27
Dose effect curves
Shows the magnitude of drug effect by dose. Lower doses typically produce weaker responses, but the type of response varies by drug. Different drugs require different doses to reach their full effect
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Drug dependence
A user experiences a need or urge to continue using a substance and has difficulty reducing the use of the substance. This can be due to recreational drug use
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ED50
Effective dose 50- The dose at which 50% of a drug's effect was observed. It can reflect a dose at which 50% of subjects exhibited a full effect. It is a measure of potency of the drug. Other values, like ED75, can be chosen by researchers
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Potency
Amount of drug used to produce a certain level of effect. The drug is considered “higher potency” when it takes a smaller amount to reach ED50- potent drugs reach the same amount of efficacy at a smaller dose
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Toxic dose
The dose at which a drug causes unacceptable adverse events
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TD50
Toxic dose 50- the point at which 50% of subjects experienced toxic effects of a drug. Most drugs will have some adverse events, but at certain doses the amount of side effects are too severe to safely give the drug
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Therapeutic index
Toxic dose divided by effective dose, or the distance between toxic and therapeutic dose curves. How different is a dose that causes toxic effects in half of subjects from a dose that produces therapeutic effects in half of the subjects. The higher the TI, the safer the drug
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What determines the dose at which a person experiences toxic effects?
Not just pure amount by body weight- some people get really sick at the same dose at which another person is only slightly affected. Individual experience, individual genetics, time of day, and many other things can impact the toxic dose
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Why doesn't the therapeutic index provide the full story for drug safety?
A fully therapeutic dose (EC100) is toxic to 50% of the people who use it, even if it did fix the issue they were taking the drug for. Also, approximately 15% of subjects experience toxic effects of EC50. This means that these drugs would be considered unsafe despite their high efficacy
36
Certain safety index
A conservative calculation for a therapeutic index, which avoids the overlap of the therapeutic and toxic dose curves. It is required for a drug to meet a safe therapeutic index, but what is safe varies depending on the drug. Calculated by dividing a TD1 (1 percent) by the dose that achieved ED99- if the drug is given to 100 people, it is effective for 99 of them. A drug has to hit ED99 and TD1 to be considered safe
37
Which drugs don't have a large therapeutic index?
Lithium is a very effective mood stabilizer for bipolar disorder. However, the lethal dose is very close to the therapeutic dose. Often, people using these drugs are closely monitored for toxic effects
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Additive effects
The magnitude of the combined drug effect (Drug A+Drug B) is the sum of each drug’s effect alone. For example, Drug A increases systolic blood pressure 5% and Drug B increases BP by 10%. Therefore, A+B increases BP by 15%
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Synergistic drug effects
The magnitude of the combined drug effect is greater than Drug A + B. E.g. Advil (Ibuprofen) + Tylenol (acetaminophen)= more pain relief. “2+2= 5” in this case
40
Pharmacodynamics
The physiological and biochemical reactions of drugs. This includes the drug's effect on the nervous system when it comes to psychoactive drugs. Cannabis makes you feel euphoric and makes eyes red, while alcohol slows responses
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Pharmacokinetics
How drugs pass through the body. Considers administration- how do you take it (inhalation, injection, topical), duration of effect, and how the drugs enter the brain. Pharmacokinetics can be used to explain the difference in effects between morphine and heroin
42
Why are people more likely to develop an addiction to heroin than morphine?
Heroin and morphine are both opiates that have roughly the same effects in the brain, but heroin crosses the blood brain barrier faster and people feel the effects faster. This is why people are more likely to develop an addiction to heroin
43
Pharmacogenetics
The study of how genetic differences influence a drug’s pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects. Helps to provide the basis of differences in drug response between subjects (some people respond to certain drugs while other people don't). Genetically related differences in drug responsiveness may affect how that drug affects the nervous system and is processed by the body. Some people metabolize a drug more quickly than others
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Genes that make people more susceptible to drug use
Someone can be genetically predisposed to addiction to a specific drug, but there is no “alcoholism gene”. Genes can affect how the body processes the drug, a person’s sensitivity to the drug, etc. Genes don’t destine someone to develop an addiction. For example- 30% of the population has cannabis use disorder. Genes on chromosome 8 (controls levels of gene CHRNA2) can influence the development of this disorder. Low levels of this gene expression in the cerebellum= associated with cannabis use disorder and diagnosis at an earlier age
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“Fast metabolizer”
People whose bodies break down drugs faster than “normal”. Results- less drug in the system and weaker drug effects. Can be measured through blood samples. Based on genetic effects rather than tolerance/learning
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Slow metabolizer
Bodies break down compounds much more slowly. Can lead to toxic effects. Based on genetic makeup
47
How does your body adapt on a cellular level?
Your cells can change their behavior in response to environmental input. If a person who is rarely exposed to sun is suddenly exposed to a lot of sun, they will burn a lot more quickly than a person who lives in a sunny environment. Your cells have mechanisms to prevent sunburn if they are regularly exposed to sun- your body can adapt. Your body needs exposure to a stimulus to be able to prepare for it
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Objective effects
The effects that can be observed and measured by others (and replicated). Ex- heart rate increase when you take cocaine. Side effects are also considered "effects" of a drug
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Subjective effects
How a person “feels” while using a specific drug. Often more useful than objective effects, but can be difficult to measure, verify, and compare across individuals. Subjective variables need to be operationalized to be measured- scales can be used to measure the subjective effects
50
When is it most necessary to know the subjective effects of a drug?
Need to know subjective experience if you’re using the drug for psychiatric conditions/therapeutic reasons- does it make an anxious person less anxious? Also necessary to know if a drug can be used recreationally- does this drug “feel good”? People generally don’t take drugs that feel bad for fun. A drug that subjectively feels good has the potential to be misused
51
Operational measures
Used to define what we are interested in and determine how we are going to measure it. Self report questionnaires are typically used to measure subjective drug effects. Likert scales (1-5) are used to help standardize what people report, like the Profile of Mood States Questionnaire
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Dependent variable
A variable that is measured or counted by a researcher
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Independent variable
Study conditions or treatments that might impact the dependent variable. In an experiment, the independent variable is manipulated to create multiple study conditions
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Experimental studies
Researchers alter the independent variable to determine whether the dependent variable changes. These type of studies are typically used to determine if a drug is effective. The treatment group is given the real drug while the control group is given a placebo. If changes occur to the dependent variable, we can generally conclude that the drug caused these changes. Groups are assigned through random assignment
55
Placebo
A substance identical in appearance to a drug but physiologically inert. This is necessary because the placebo effect can influence results- sometimes, thinking something is real can lead to you behaving like it’s real. Humans like to observe patterns and make predictions- believing the treatment will work can influence behavior. Certain things, like pain, are very susceptible to the placebo effect
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Random assignment
Used in experiments to assign participants to study groups. The goal is to make the treatment and control groups as similar as possible
57
Different blinding procedures in experimental studies (3)
1. Single blind
2. Double blind
3. Open label
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Single blind
Subjects don’t know which condition they are in (treatment or placebo), although researchers do know. This can be more useful in certain situations, like if you’re worried about certain side effects that you need to observe people for
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Double blind
Neither the subjects or the experimenter (explicitly) know which condition participants are in. Ensures all groups are treated equally. Usually, this method is more scientifically valid
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Open label studies
Not a blind procedure, but is still experimental- the assessment of whether a study can be blind is based on risk. It can be unethical to withhold a specific drug/treatment and give placebo instead. Examples- cancer, severe mental illness, etc. Control condition can be people getting the typical standard of treatment instead of a placebo. Can also be used if severe side effects are possible that participants need to know to look out for
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Correlational studies
Researchers determine if changes in one variable are associated with changes in another variable. To what extent do the variables move together, and do changes in one variable predict certain changes in the other variable. The independent variable is not altered, but studied as a condition that already exists. Ex- relationship between number of times subjects have used MDMA and the number of items remembered from a word list
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R value (correlation coefficient)
Represents the relationship between two variables in a correlational study. The sign of the number indicates the direction of the relationship (positive or negative). The closer to 1 at either end, the stronger the relationship. The closer to zero, the weaker the relationship
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Observational studies
Measures behavior as it naturally occurs. For example, these studies are used to determine incidence of drug use in the population
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Internal validity
Adequacy of controlling variables that may influence a dependent variable. How well you’re measuring what you think you’re measuring, only the independent variable should be causing changes in the dependent variable. Internal validity is compromised when confounding variables influence the outcome. Double blinded studies can enhance internal validity
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External validity
Ability to extend findings beyond study conditions. How well the findings translate to other situations/generalize to other populations. Studies in animals might not generalize to humans. Studies in adults might not generalize to children if no pediatric participants were included
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Face validity
The appearance of a test measuring what a researcher considers it to measure. Alzheimer's disease causes memory deficits, and researchers study Alzheimer's drugs in mice with memory deficits. Therefore, testing memory in mice offers face validity for Alzheimer's disease. Some animal models can't offer face validity. The symptoms of schizophrenia are auditory hallucinations and paranoia. We lack animal models for those symptoms when testing schizophrenia drugs
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Construct validity
How well a study’s findings relate to the underlying theory of a study’s objectives- how well do your results match your theory? Testing new drugs for Alzheimer's disease in Alzheimer's patients offers high construct validity because those individuals have all of the genetic changes of Alzheimer's and the resulting damage to cells in the brain
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Predictive validity
Ability of model to predict treatment effects. An experimental drug might improve memory in certain genetically altered mice and later prove to treat Alzheimer's disease. This means that the mice had high predictive validity because the mouse model predicted the response to the drug in humans
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Stages of therapeutic drug development (6)
1. Stage 1- what to treat
2. Stage 2- chemists develop experimental compounds
3. Stage 3- test compounds developed in stage 2 with biological models
4. Shift to highly focused screening methods
5. Stage 5- safety pharmacology
6. Stage 6- clinical trials
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Stage 1 of therapeutic drug development
Determining which disorder to treat- this is an economic decision. In for profit models, companies tend to take more risks with drug development- the drugs need to pay off/make a profit. Rarer disorders tend to have fewer drugs- these disorders are more difficult to study, and there would not be a large market for a drug once it comes out
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Stage 2 of therapeutic drug development
Chemists develop experimental compounds based on the understanding of the disorder and how it acts in the body. This is the hypothesis testing stage, where drug synthesis begin to occur. Chemists may develop variations of existing therapeutic drugs or develop drugs based on established theories
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Stage 3 of therapeutic drug development
Compounds developed in stage 2 are tested in biological models. How well do the drugs bind to certain proteins in tissue models? Prefer to use high throughput screening methods. Results are sent to chemists and guide synthesis of further compounds
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Advantages of high throughput screening methods (3)
1. Provide quick results and determine if experimental drug= desired effects
2. Chemists then refine and test again- hopefully getting closer to desired effects
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High throughput screening methods
Rapid testing using a large number of experimental drugs. Chemists receive the results and use them to develop more drugs that they send for screening again . This back and forth process continues as each new series of drugs comes closer to achieving a particular biological effect
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Stage 4 of therapeutic drug development
This stage represents a shift from high throughput screening methods to highly focused screening methods. Much slower- but offer greater precision about effects of the drug. Use models that have face, construct, or predictive validity- often include animal models.
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Stage 5 of therapeutic drug development
Safety pharmacology testing. Researchers want to identify adverse and toxic effects, as well as the toxic dose. Adverse effects can include mild to serious physiological effects, addiction risks, and changes in mental functioning. We identify adverse effects too severe to expose patients to toxic effects. Is toxic dose significantly higher than therapeutic dose?
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Safety pharmacology
Screening processes that identify a drug's adverse and toxic effects. Goal is to identify a drug's toxic doses
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Stage 6 of therapeutic drug development
Clinical trials- the most effective and safest compounds tested from previous stages are tested in humans. Regulatory approval is sought after positive clinical findings. Most drugs don't make it to this stage due to lack of safety or efficacy.
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What is a clinical trial?
A government-approved therapeutic drug experiment in humans. There are 3-4 stages
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Treatment arms
Number of treatments and doses provided to patients in a clinical study
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Clinical study report
Detailed summaries of a clinical study's design and results
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Phase 1 clinical trial
The main goal is to determine a drug's safety in humans. This phase uses a low dose of a drug and provides it to healthy human volunteers if feasible or to a specific patient population for a short period of time. Clinical investigations will not continue if a drug is found unsafe in phase 1
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Phase 2 clinical trial
Primarily, researchers seek to measure a drug's therapeutic efficacy by recruiting volunteers with the disorder to be treated. They tend to use larger doses that are administered short term. The experimental drug may be compared to standard medical treatment, keep monitoring adverse effects. A company may see no benefit to continuing clinical trials for a drug that is only as effective as other drugs on the market
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Phase 3 clinical trial
Provide more information about the drug's therapeutic effects and potential adverse events. There is usually a longer duration of treatment, and this phase relies on the results from phase 2 to determine if the dose should be kept the same, increased, or decreased. Researchers recruit participants to have a greater diversity of human populations and health backgrounds. The FDA grants market approval to drugs deemed safe and effective after phase 3, although the FDA may request further monitoring after the drug goes to market
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Phase 4 clinical trial
Further monitoring of the drug after it has been approved to go to market by the FDA. These trials may use higher doses, use longer durations, or focus on some specific human population or coexisting health condition in order to answer remaining questions or concerns about the drug. Goal is to further determine features of a drug’s therapeutic effectiveness and adverse effects
