IPOL midterm Flashcards

Question

Feminism (liberal, radical, and social):

Answer 1

- Liberal feminism focuses on achieving gender equality through legal reforms and equal opportunities, stemming from Enlightenment ideals of individual rights. - Radical feminism argues that patriarchy is the root of women’s oppression and calls for a complete rethinking of gender relations. It emerged in the 1960s. - Social feminism combines Marxist and feminist ideas, seeing capitalism and patriarchy as intertwined systems of oppression. Its relevance is seen in critiques of both class and gender inequality.

Answer 2

Holism is a philosophical approach that emphasizes the importance of whole systems rather than just their parts in understanding complexity. It originated from early 20th-century biology and systems theory. Its relevance lies in its application to the social sciences, where it encourages analyzing societies as interconnected wholes rather than isolated components. GREEN IDEOLOGY

Answer 3

Religious fundamentalism refers to the strict adherence to traditional religious beliefs and practices, often rejecting modernity and secularism. It emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly among conservative Protestant groups in the US. The relevance of fundamentalism today is seen in various global movements where religious groups resist secular influences and seek to reassert traditional values in politics and society.

Answer 4

Cosmopolitanism advocates for global citizenship, transcending national boundaries and embracing the idea that all humans belong to a single community. Its origins trace back to ancient Greek philosophers like the Cynics and Stoics. Cosmopolitanism’s relevance is reflected in contemporary discussions on globalization, human rights, and global governance.

Answer 5

Post-decolonialism critically examines the lasting impact of colonialism on former colonies and the ongoing cultural, political, and economic inequalities that persist in the postcolonial era. It emerged in the mid-20th century as scholars like Edward Said and Frantz Fanon explored these themes. Its relevance addresses how colonial power dynamics continue to shape global relations, identities, and development, particularly in former colonies.

Answer 6

Intersectionality is a framework that examines how various forms of oppression (e.g., race, gender, class) intersect and shape individual experiences. Kimberlé Crenshaw coined it in the late 20th century within feminist and critical race theory. Its relevance is in highlighting the complexity of social inequalities and advocating for more nuanced approaches to social justice.

Answer 7

Populism is a political approach that seeks to represent the interests of the 'ordinary people' against a perceived corrupt elite. It can emerge on both the left and right of the political spectrum and has roots in 19th-century movements such as the People's Party in the US. Populism’s relevance is seen in the rise of leaders and movements that challenge traditional political elites, appealing to popular dissatisfaction with the status quo, often through simplified rhetoric and direct, charismatic leadership.

Answer 8

Pro-Socialism: Advocates argue that socialism provides a more equitable distribution of wealth and resources, reduces income inequality, and ensures universal access to essential services like healthcare and education. Supporters claim that socialist policies, such as Scandinavia, have resulted in higher living standards, social justice, and better safety nets. Against Socialism: Critics argue that socialism stifles economic innovation, reduces individual freedoms, and leads to inefficient resource management, as seen in historical examples like the Soviet Union or Venezuela. They assert that centralized planning and the lack of market incentives result in stagnation and authoritarianism. Is Socialism failing or not? The success or failure of socialism depends on its implementation. In mixed economies like Northern Europe, socialist policies coexist with capitalist markets, and the system is generally considered successful. In fully planned economies, the centralization of power and lack of market incentives have often led to economic failure and political repression. Thus, the debate continues, with successes and failures fueling both sides.

Answer 9

A nation-state is a political entity that aligns political and national identity, where a distinct nation (people with a shared language, culture, or history) governs itself within a defined territory. The concept originated in Europe in the 17th century, particularly after the Treaty of Westphalia (1648). Its relevance today lies in its role as the dominant form of political organization, where sovereignty and self-determination are central to international relations.

Answer 10

1. territorial sovereignty 2. has public institutions (funded by taxation) 3. monopoly on violence 4. exercises legitimate power and reflects the common good (will) 5. geographically defined

Answer 11

The Montenegro Convention on the Rights and Duties of the State (1933) established a legal framework for defining a state in international law. According to this convention, a state must have: A permanent population A defined territory A government The capacity to enter into relations with other states. This convention ensures that states have equal rights and obligations in the international system.

Answer 12

Pluralism views the state as a neutral body that arbitrates between competing interest groups. Originating from liberal democratic theory, it argues that power is dispersed, and no single group dominates. This theory highlights the importance of elections, interest groups, and civil society in shaping state policy.

Answer 13

According to Marxist theory, the capitalist state serves the interests of the ruling capitalist class by maintaining capitalism's economic system. Originating from Karl Marx, the theory suggests that the state is an instrument of class oppression, ensuring the reproduction of capitalist relations and preventing working-class revolution.

Answer 14

The Leviathan state, coined by Thomas Hobbes, refers to a state with immense power that individuals consent to for protection and order. Hobbes argued that, in a state of nature, life would be "nasty, brutish, and short," so people surrender their freedom to a powerful state to maintain security and prevent chaos.

Answer 15

Feminist theory argues that the state is inherently patriarchal, reinforcing male dominance and gender inequality through its laws, policies, and institutions. Originating from radical feminist thought, this theory critiques the state’s role in maintaining the subjugation of women and challenges the male-centric nature of governance.

Answer 16

A social-democratic state actively intervenes in the economy to reduce inequalities and provide welfare services like healthcare, education, and unemployment benefits. Originating from democratic socialism and Keynesian economics, it seeks to balance free markets with social justice, as seen in countries like Sweden or Denmark.

Answer 17

The minimal state, advocated by classical liberals and libertarians, performs only basic functions such as maintaining law and order, protecting property rights, and defending the country. The idea, from thinkers like Adam Smith, limits state intervention in economic and social life, relying on free markets and individual autonomy.

Answer 18

A collectivized state involves the public ownership of the means of production, with the state playing a central role in economic planning and distribution. It originates from Marxist theory and was implemented in Soviet-style socialist regimes, where the state controls industries and resources to achieve classless society goals.

Answer 19

A totalitarian state exerts total control over all aspects of public and private life, including the economy, politics, media, and individual freedoms. This form of state is associated with dictatorships like Nazi Germany or Stalinist USSR, where the state uses propaganda, surveillance, and repression to maintain power. Originating in the 20th century, it remains a powerful concept for understanding extreme forms of authoritarianism.

Answer 20

Government overload is when governments tend to provide more public services and programs than what citizens actually demand or need. This thesis suggests that the government, driven by bureaucrats, politicians, or interest groups, expands its role and increases public spending beyond the optimal level for society.

Answer 21

Social contract theory is a philosophical concept that suggests individuals consent, either explicitly or implicitly, to form a society and a government in exchange for protection and preserving certain rights. It explores the relationship between individuals and the state, asserting that the legitimacy of political authority derives from a mutual agreement or contract among the people.

Answer 22

Liberal nationalism emphasizes individual rights and freedoms within the context of national identity. It promotes self-determination and democratic governance while advocating for the inclusion of diverse groups within the nation. The concept emerged in the 19th century as a response to imperialism, seeking to unite people around shared values and principles rather than ethnicity or religion.

Answer 23

Sovereignty refers to a state's supreme authority to govern itself, make its own laws, and conduct its affairs without external interference. It encompasses internal sovereignty (control over domestic policies and governance) and external sovereignty (recognition and engagement in international relations). The concept, solidified by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, remains fundamental in international law and politics, influencing debates on self-determination, intervention, and global governance.

Answer 24

Expansionist nationalism advocates for the growth of a nation's territory or influence, often at the expense of other nations or groups. It is driven by a belief in national superiority or destiny, leading to aggressive foreign policies or territorial claims. This ideology has historical roots in imperialism and colonialism, exemplified by movements that sought to expand national boundaries through conquest.

Answer 25

Conservative nationalism focuses on preserving traditional cultural, social, and political values within a nation, often prioritizing national identity and heritage over progressive changes. It emerged as a reaction against liberalism and globalization, advocating for strong state control and policies emphasising national unity. This form of nationalism often emphasizes the importance of shared history and cultural heritage.

Answer 26

Chauvinism refers to an excessive and often aggressive loyalty to one's own nation, accompanied by a belief in its superiority over others. This extreme form of nationalism can manifest in militarism, xenophobia, and intolerance towards other cultures or nations. The term originated during the French Revolution and is often used to critique overly patriotic or jingoistic sentiments.

Answer 27

Anti-colonial nationalism is a political movement to achieve independence and self-determination for colonized nations and peoples. It arose in response to colonial oppression, advocating for the rights and identity of indigenous populations. Key figures in this movement, such as Mahatma Gandhi and Kwame Nkrumah, emphasized cultural pride, unity, and resistance against colonial powers.

Answer 28

Civic nationalism defines the nation based on shared values, citizenship, and political institutions rather than ethnic or cultural identity. It promotes inclusion and equality among citizens, emphasizing loyalty to the state and its democratic principles. This form of nationalism is often seen in modern liberal democracies, where national identity is tied to citizenship rather than ethnicity.

Answer 29

Ethnic nationalism is based on the belief that a nation is defined by shared ethnicity, culture, language, or ancestry. It emphasizes the importance of a common heritage and often seeks to create a nation-state that aligns political boundaries with ethnic identities. This form of nationalism can lead to exclusionary practices and conflicts, as seen in various historical separatist movements.

Answer 30

Traditional authority is a form of leadership based on established customs, practices, and social structures, where power is legitimized through long-standing traditions and cultural norms. This type of authority often arises in societies with strong historical legacies and is exemplified by monarchies or tribal systems. Max Weber identified traditional authority as one of the three ideal types of authority, emphasizing its stability and continuity within society.

Answer 31

Charismatic authority stems from a leader's personal appeal, extraordinary qualities, or charisma, inspiring loyalty and devotion among followers. This form of authority relies on the leader's ability to connect emotionally with the populace, often seen in revolutionary or transformative figures like Martin Luther King Jr. or Nelson Mandela. While charismatic authority can mobilize support and bring about significant change, it may lack institutional stability, making it susceptible to decline after the leader's departure.

Answer 32

Legal-rational authority is based on established laws, rules, and procedures that grant legitimacy to institutions and their leaders. This form of authority is characteristic of modern bureaucracies and democratic systems, where power derives from the legal framework rather than personal attributes or traditions. Max Weber emphasized that legal-rational authority promotes efficiency and predictability in governance, as it relies on rational-legal norms.

Answer 33

The general will is a concept introduced by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. It refers to the collective will of the citizenry that aims for the common good or the public interest. It emphasizes that individuals should prioritize the community's welfare over personal interests in a democratic society. Rousseau argued that the general will should guide political decisions, ensuring that governance reflects the shared values and aspirations of the people.

Answer 34

Democratic legitimacy refers to the right of a government to rule based on the consent and participation of the governed, often expressed through free and fair elections. It relies on accountability, transparency, and adherence to the rule of law, ensuring political authority is derived from the people's will. In a democratic context, legitimacy is essential for fostering trust and cooperation between the state and its citizens.

Answer 35

Non-democratic legitimacy refers to the justification of political authority that does not stem from popular consent or democratic principles. This can include authoritarian regimes that maintain power through coercion, tradition, or ideological doctrines rather than electoral processes. While non-democratic legitimacy may rely on factors such as stability or economic performance, it often faces accountability and popular acceptance challenges.

Answer 36

1. Democracy serves as a mechanism to protect citizens from government overreach, primarily through voting in competitive elections. 2. It ensures accountability through a constitutional democracy, with checks on government power via a separation of powers (executive, legislature, judiciary). 3. Political equality is understood as equal voting rights. 4. Citizens enjoy basic rights and freedoms like freedom of expression and freedom from arbitrary arrest. 5. It aligns with laissez-faire capitalism, emphasizing individual responsibility for economic and social circumstances.

Answer 37

1. Direct, mass participation in government without intermediaries. 2. Citizens were actively engaged in both public office and decision-making. 3. Only male Athenian-born citizens over 20 could participate. 4. Excluded the majority of the population (women, slaves, foreigners). 5. Political involvement was facilitated by the institution of slavery and the exclusion of women from public life.

Answer 38

1. Focuses on the development of individuals and the community through active participation in political life. 2. Promotes direct democracy and the concept of the general will—the idea that citizens should act selflessly to achieve the common good. 3. Advocates for economic equality, as Rousseau believed that extreme wealth disparities hinder true democracy. 4. Emphasizes the role of grass-roots democracy, where decision-making takes place at the lowest possible level, empowering citizens in their local communities. 5. Mill promoted a form of deliberative democracy, where discussion and debate play a central role in decision-making, ensuring more thoughtful and educated political participation.

Answer 39

1. Proletarian Democracy: Aimed to replace bourgeois democracy with a system controlled by the working class, theoretically achieving true equality through the common ownership of resources. 2. Vanguard Party: Under Leninist democracy, the Communist Party, organized on the principle of democratic centralism, claimed to represent the interests of the proletariat and guide them towards revolutionary goals. 3. Direct Democracy: Early Marxist models, like the Paris Commune, emphasized direct participation by the working class in decision-making processes. 4. Centralization: In practice, Leninist regimes often resulted in centralized control, with the Communist Party consolidating power rather than promoting widespread democratic participation.

Answer 40

The pluralist view of democracy posits that power is distributed among multiple interest groups, each competing to influence policy and governance. This perspective emphasizes that diverse viewpoints and interests can coexist within a democratic system, with political outcomes resulting from negotiation and compromise among competing factions. Pluralism underscores the importance of civil society and participation in shaping public policy.

Answer 41

The elitist view of democracy argues that political power is concentrated in the hands of a small, elite group, regardless of formal democratic structures. This perspective suggests that while elections may occur, real decision-making power often lies with a few individuals or organizations with the resources and influence to shape policy. Elitism critiques the notion of equal participation, highlighting the disparities within democratic systems.

Answer 42

The corporatist view of democracy emphasizes the role of organized interest groups, such as labour unions and business associations, in shaping political decisions. In this model, the government collaborates with these groups to manage societal interests and maintain social order, often integrating them into policymaking. Corporatism can create a more stable political environment but may also limit broader democratic participation by privileging specific interests.

Answer 43

The new right view of democracy advocates for a limited role of the state in economic affairs, emphasizing free markets, individualism, and traditional values. This perspective often critiques welfare policies and regulatory frameworks, arguing that they undermine personal responsibility and economic freedom. Proponents of the new right seek to align democratic governance with neoliberal principles, promoting policies that enhance individual liberties and reduce state intervention.

Answer 44

The Marxist view of democracy critiques traditional liberal democracy as a façade that primarily serves the interests of the capitalist class while marginalizing the working class. Marxists argue that true democracy can only be achieved by abolishing capitalism and establishing a socialist system where the means of production are collectively owned. In this framework, democracy is linked to economic equality and the empowerment of the proletariat, emphasizing the need for class struggle to achieve genuine political representation.

Answer 45

The cosmopolitan view of democracy emphasizes global citizenship and the interconnectedness of societies, advocating for democratic practices that transcend national borders. It argues for addressing global issues, such as human rights and environmental sustainability, through inclusive and participatory governance. Cosmopolitan democracy seeks to expand democratic principles beyond the nation-state, fostering cooperation and accountability on a global scale.

Answer 46

Western liberal democracies are political systems characterized by free and fair elections, protection of individual rights, rule of law, and a separation of powers. These democracies prioritize civil liberties, political pluralism, and institutional checks and balances to prevent the concentration of power. The roots of Western liberal democracy can be traced back to Enlightenment principles and the development of constitutional governance, emphasizing the importance of individual freedoms and democratic participation.

Answer 47

East Asian political regimes exhibit a variety of governance styles, ranging from authoritarian to semi-democratic systems, often characterized by a strong state role in economic development. Some countries, like South Korea and Taiwan, have transitioned to democratic governance, while others, like China and Vietnam, maintain one-party rule with limited political pluralism. These regimes often prioritize economic growth and stability over political freedoms, leading to unique models of governance that blend economic development with varying degrees of political control.

Answer 48

Illiberal democracies are political systems that maintain the outward appearance of democratic processes, such as elections but lack essential democratic principles like the rule of law, civil liberties, and genuine political competition. In these regimes, leaders may manipulate electoral processes, restrict freedom of speech, and undermine independent institutions to maintain power. Illiberal democracies often emerge where populist movements gain traction, leading to a decline in democratic norms while still claiming legitimacy through electoral mechanisms.

Answer 49

State-centric political economy emphasizes the state's role in shaping economic policies, institutions, and outcomes. It argues that government actions, regulations, and interventions are crucial for understanding how economic systems operate, particularly in addressing issues like inequality, development, and international trade. This perspective contrasts with more market-oriented theories prioritising free-market mechanisms over state involvement.

Answer 50

Islamic regimes are political systems where governance is influenced or guided by Islamic principles and laws (Sharia). These regimes can vary widely in their application of Islamic law, from moderate interpretations in countries like Turkey to more strict implementations in nations like Iran or Saudi Arabia. Islamic regimes often emphasize the importance of religious authority in governance, balancing between modern state functions and adherence to traditional Islamic values, which can impact areas such as law, education, and civil rights.

Answer 51

Mercantilism is an economic theory and practice that emerged from the 16th to 18th centuries. It advocates for a strong role of the state in managing the economy to increase national wealth and power. It emphasizes protectionist policies, such as tariffs and trade monopolies, to achieve a favourable trade balance and accumulate precious metals. Mercantilism views economic activity as a zero-sum game, where one nation's gain comes at the expense of another, thus prioritizing state intervention in economic matters.

Answer 52

Military regimes are political systems where the armed forces exert control over governance, often through coups or military rule. In these regimes, military leaders may suspend democratic processes, restrict civil liberties, and govern through authoritarian means. Military regimes often justify their rule by citing the need for stability and national security. Still, they frequently face opposition and calls for democratic reforms, particularly in contexts where civilian governments have been ousted.

Answer 53

Marxist political economy analyzes the relationship between capitalism, class struggle, and economic systems, emphasizing how economic structures influence political power and social relations. It critiques capitalism for creating inequality and exploitation, positing that the ruling class (bourgeoisie) maintains power over the working class (proletariat) through economic means. This framework seeks to uncover the underlying dynamics of capitalist economies and advocates for revolutionary change towards a socialist system.

Answer 54

Varieties of capitalism is a framework that categorizes different capitalist systems based on how firms are coordinated and how labor markets are structured. It identifies distinct models, including: Enterprise Capitalism: Characterized by a focus on market-driven economies, individual entrepreneurship, and minimal state intervention, prevalent in countries like the United States. Social Capitalism: Combines free-market principles with social policies aimed at reducing inequality and providing welfare, commonly seen in Scandinavian countries. State Capitalism: Features significant state involvement in the economy, with the government owning or controlling key industries, as seen in countries like China and Russia.

Answer 55

Keynesianism is an economic theory developed by John Maynard Keynes during the Great Depression, advocating for active government intervention to manage demand and stabilize economic fluctuations. It argues that governments should increase public spending and lower taxes during economic downturns to stimulate demand, promoting economic growth and reducing unemployment. Keynesianism has influenced various fiscal policies, particularly in times of recession.

Answer 56

Neoliberalism is an economic and political ideology that emerged in the late 20th century. It advocates for free markets, deregulation, and reduced government intervention in the economy. It emphasizes individual entrepreneurship, competition, and globalization as pathways to economic growth. Neoliberal policies often include privatization of state-owned enterprises, tax cuts, and austerity measures, believing that a minimal state role will lead to more efficient and effective economic outcomes.

Answer 57

Economic globalization refers to the increasing interdependence of national economies through trade, investment, and capital flows. It is characterized by removing barriers to trade and investment, leading to the integration of global markets. Economic globalization has facilitated the growth of multinational corporations and global supply chains, but it has also raised concerns about inequality, labor rights, and environmental impacts.

Answer 58

The 2007-2009 financial crisis was a global economic downturn triggered by the collapse of the housing market in the United States. This led to widespread bank failures and a severe credit crunch, which resulted in significant job losses, declining consumer confidence, and a recession that affected economies worldwide. The crisis prompted massive government interventions, including bailouts and stimulus packages, to stabilize financial markets and prevent a complete economic collapse.

Answer 59

Political globalization involves the spread and influence of political ideas, institutions, and practices across borders, leading to increased interconnectedness among nations. It encompasses the growth of international organizations, treaties, and transnational networks that shape global governance. Political globalization often addresses issues like human rights, environmental challenges, and security, reflecting the need for cooperative solutions to global problems.

Answer 60

Neoliberal globalization refers to the global application of neoliberal principles, emphasizing free-market policies, deregulation, and the reduction of state intervention in economies worldwide. It promotes the idea that economic growth and development are best achieved through market mechanisms, leading to widespread privatization and liberalization. While proponents argue that it boosts economic efficiency and growth, critics highlight its potential to exacerbate inequality and undermine social welfare.

Answer 61

The 2010 sovereign debt crisis involved several European countries, notably Greece, facing rising public debt levels and the inability to meet debt obligations. Triggered by the financial crisis, concerns over fiscal sustainability led to a loss of investor confidence and rising borrowing costs. The crisis prompted international interventions, including bailouts from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the European Union (EU), along with austerity measures to reduce deficits and restore economic stability.

Answer 62

Commodity fetishism is a concept developed by Karl Marx. It refers to the phenomenon where social relationships and labour are obscured by the emphasis on the exchange value of commodities in a capitalist system. It suggests that individuals view commodities as having intrinsic value, separate from the labour that produced them, which can lead to alienation from the production process. This perspective highlights how consumer culture can obscure the realities of exploitation and the social dynamics of labour.

Answer 63

Feminist political economy examines how economic systems and structures impact gender relations, emphasizing the interplay between gender, class, and economic power. It critiques traditional economic theories for neglecting women's contributions to the economy in paid and unpaid labour. It highlights the systemic inequalities women face in accessing resources and decision-making. This perspective seeks to address issues such as reproductive labour, wage gaps, and the intersection of gender with other forms of oppression within economic systems.

Answer 64

A global commodity chain refers to the various production, distribution, and consumption stages of a commodity that spans multiple countries and involves different actors. It encompasses the entire process, from raw material extraction to manufacturing, logistics, and retail, illustrating how globalization affects economic relationships and labour practices across borders. Analyzing global commodity chains can reveal issues related to labour rights, environmental sustainability, and the unequal distribution of power and wealth.

Answer 65

Pro Globalization: Proponents argue that globalization promotes economic growth by facilitating trade, investment, and innovation, leading to greater efficiency and access to goods and services. It can enhance cultural exchange, improve living standards in developing countries, and foster global cooperation on climate change and public health issues. Against Globalization: Critics contend that globalization exacerbates inequality, as wealth becomes concentrated among multinational corporations and a small elite, often at the expense of local economies and labour rights. It can lead to environmental degradation, loss of cultural identity, and undermine national sovereignty, making communities vulnerable to global market fluctuations.

Answer 66

Postcolonial political economy analyzes colonialism's economic and political legacies, focusing on how historical exploitation and power dynamics continue to shape contemporary global relations. It critiques mainstream political economy's assumptions, which often overlook the experiences and perspectives of formerly colonized nations. This framework emphasizes issues such as neocolonialism, global inequality, and the importance of local agency in reshaping economic and political landscapes.

Answer 67

Stagflation is an economic condition characterized by stagnant economic growth, high unemployment, and high inflation occurring simultaneously. This phenomenon challenges the traditional economic theory that inflation and unemployment have an inverse relationship, as seen in the Phillips Curve. Stagflation emerged prominently in the 1970s, particularly in the United States, driven by oil price shocks and ineffective monetary policies, leading to significant economic and political repercussions.

Answer 68

Laissez-faire capitalism is an economic system characterized by minimal government intervention, allowing free markets to regulate themselves. The belief in laissez-faire is rooted in classical liberal economic theory, which posits that individuals pursuing their self-interest will ultimately benefit society through the "invisible hand" of the market. Critics argue that laissez-faire capitalism can lead to monopolies, economic instability, and social inequalities, necessitating some level of government regulation to protect public interests.

Answer 69

The rise of individualism refers to a social and cultural trend that emphasizes personal autonomy, self-expression, and the individual's rights over collective or communal identities. Enlightenment ideas, capitalism, and the decline of traditional social structures, such as family and religion have influenced this shift. Individualism promotes values such as personal responsibility and freedom, but it can also lead to social fragmentation and a sense of alienation.

Answer 70

A post-industrial society is characterized by a shift from a manufacturing-based economy to one focused on services, information, and technology. This transformation, which began in the late 20th century, emphasizes knowledge, education, and innovation as primary economic drivers, leading to social structure and lifestyle changes. In post-industrial societies, traditional industries decline while sectors such as finance, healthcare, and technology expand, impacting employment patterns and social relations.

Answer 71

Identity politics is a political approach that emphasizes the interests and perspectives of specific social groups, often based on characteristics such as race, gender, sexual orientation, and ethnicity. It seeks to address historical injustices and inequalities marginalised communities face, advocating for representation and empowerment. Critics argue that identity politics can lead to division and tribalism, detracting from broader social and economic issues.

Answer 72

Multiculturalism is a social and political philosophy that recognizes and values cultural diversity within a society. It encourages the coexistence of multiple cultural identities and promotes inclusivity and equal representation. Multiculturalism can take different forms, including: Liberal Multiculturalism: Emphasizes individual rights and freedoms while promoting tolerance for diverse cultural practices within a framework of liberal democracy. Pluralist Multiculturalism: Focuses on the coexistence of different cultural groups and their equal status in society, advocating for policies that support cultural diversity. Cosmopolitan Multiculturalism: Advocates for a global perspective that transcends national boundaries, promoting cross-cultural understanding and cooperation.

Answer 73

Gender identity refers to an individual's sense of their gender, which may or may not align with the sex assigned at birth. This concept recognizes the complexity of gender beyond binary classifications, allowing for a range of identities.

Answer 74

Secularism is the principle of separating religion from political and public life. It advocates for a neutral stance towards all religions by the state. It emphasizes the importance of reason and scientific inquiry over religious beliefs in governance and policy-making. Secularism aims to ensure that individuals can practice their faith freely while protecting the rights of those who choose not to adhere to any religion, fostering a pluralistic society.

Answer 75

The precariat is a social class characterized by precarious employment, lacking stable jobs and financial security. This term combines "precarious" and "proletariat" to describe individuals who experience uncertainty in their work and livelihoods, often working in low-wage or part-time positions without benefits. The rise of the precariat is associated with shifts in the labor market, including globalization and the decline of traditional industries.

Answer 76

An information society is a concept that describes a societal shift where the creation, distribution, and manipulation of information become central to economic, political, and cultural activities. Technological advancements, particularly in communications and computing, facilitate this transformation, leading to changes in how individuals interact and access knowledge. The information society emphasizes the importance of information and knowledge as key resources for innovation and growth.

Answer 77

Class consciousness is the awareness of one's social class and the collective interests and struggles shared with others in the same class. It plays a crucial role in fostering solidarity among class members and can lead to organized collective action for social or political change. Class consciousness is a key concept in Marxist theory, as it is believed to be essential for the working class to recognize its exploitation and unite against the ruling class.

Answer 78

Social class refers to a group of people who share similar economic, social, and cultural characteristics, often defined by their position in the economic hierarchy. Class is typically determined by wealth, occupation, education, and social status, influencing individuals' access to resources and opportunities. Understanding social class is essential for analyzing inequalities and power dynamics within society.

Answer 79

The term "contended majority" refers to a situation in which a significant portion of the population holds competing interests or identities that challenge the dominant social or political narratives. This group often seeks recognition and representation, highlighting the complexities of identity politics and power dynamics within a society. The contended majority reflects the fragmentation of traditional majorities into diverse and often conflicting factions.

Answer 80

The underclass is a term used to describe a marginalized segment of society that experiences persistent poverty and social exclusion. This group often lacks access to education, stable employment, and essential services, leading to cycles of disadvantage. The underclass is characterized by a range of social issues, including unemployment, crime, and inadequate housing, and is often stigmatized in public discourse.

Answer 81

Fordist societies are characterized by mass production and consumption, emphasizing standardized goods and centralized manufacturing practices, as seen in the early to mid-20th century. In contrast, post-Fordist societies reflect a shift towards flexible production methods, customization, and a focus on services and information technologies. This transition has implications for labor relations, economic structures, and social organization.

Answer 82

Technocracy is a political and economic system where decision-making is primarily in the hands of technical experts and specialists rather than elected representatives or traditional political figures. It advocates for applying scientific and technical knowledge to solve societal problems, emphasizing efficiency and rational planning. Critics argue that technocracy can undermine democratic processes and accountability by prioritizing technical solutions over public engagement.

Answer 83

A knowledge economy is one where knowledge, information, and intellectual capital are the primary drivers of economic growth and innovation. In this economy, the value of products and services increasingly depends on advanced skills, creativity, and the ability to process and analyze information. The knowledge economy emphasizes the importance of education, research, and technology in enhancing productivity and competitiveness.

Answer 84

Cultural relativism is the concept that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based on their own cultural context, rather than judged against the standards of another culture. This perspective promotes tolerance and understanding of cultural diversity, arguing that no single culture is superior to another. However, critics argue that cultural relativism can lead to moral ambiguity, making it difficult to address practices that may violate human rights.

Answer 85

Economic individualism is a political and economic philosophy emphasising individual autonomy, self-reliance, and personal responsibility in economic decision-making. It advocates for minimal government intervention in the economy, believing that individuals should be free to pursue their interests and make choices without excessive regulation. Proponents argue that economic individualism fosters innovation and entrepreneurship, while critics contend it can exacerbate inequality and social injustice.

Answer 86

Social reflexivity refers to the ability of individuals and societies to reflect on and critique their own social practices, norms, and values. This concept emphasizes awareness of social actions' interconnectedness and consequences, promoting critical thinking and adaptability. Social reflexivity is particularly relevant in discussions about identity, power, and social change, as it encourages ongoing dialogue and self-examination.

Answer 87

Anomie is a sociological concept introduced by Émile Durkheim to describe a state of normlessness or disintegration of social norms within a society. It often occurs during rapid social change or disruption, leading to feelings of alienation, confusion, and a lack of purpose among individuals. Anomie can contribute to social problems, including crime, mental health issues, and a breakdown of community cohesion.

Answer 88

A culture war refers to the conflict between groups with differing cultural values, beliefs, and practices, often centered on religion, morality, and social norms. This term describes polarized debates over cultural issues that can manifest in politics, media, and public discourse. Culture wars highlight societal divisions and the struggles over identity, representation, and social change.

Answer 89

Cultural diversity refers to the variety of cultural identities and expressions within a society, encompassing differences in language, religion, traditions, and values. Multiculturalism is a policy and philosophy that promotes the coexistence and appreciation of diverse cultural identities, advocating for inclusivity and equal representation. While multiculturalism can enrich societies, it also raises questions about integration, social cohesion, and the challenges of balancing diverse interests.

Answer 90

Racial and ethnic identity politics focuses on the interests and experiences of specific racial and ethnic groups, often advocating for representation and addressing historical injustices. This approach highlights the importance of recognizing and valuing cultural identities while addressing systemic inequalities. Critics argue that it can lead to division and fragmentation within broader political movements, while proponents contend it is essential for achieving social justice and equity.

Answer 91

Political culture encompasses the shared beliefs, values, attitudes, and behaviors that shape the political life of a society. It influences how individuals perceive authority, governance, and civic engagement, affecting political participation and public policy. Understanding political culture is essential for analyzing the stability and dynamics of political systems and institutions.

Answer 92

The civic-culture approach, developed by Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba, emphasizes the importance of civic engagement and active participation in democracy as foundational to a healthy political culture. It argues that a strong civic culture combines participation, political knowledge, and trust in institutions, fostering a stable and effective democratic system. This approach highlights the interplay between individual attitudes and collective political behavior.

Answer 93

Hegemony is a concept developed by Antonio Gramsci, referring to the dominance of one group over others, not solely through coercion but also through cultural and ideological means. It involves the establishment of a worldview that becomes accepted as the norm, shaping social beliefs and practices. Hegemony operates by creating consent among subordinated groups, often masking underlying power inequalities.

Answer 94

Postmaterialism is a social theory that suggests a shift in values from material concerns, such as economic security and physical well-being, to post-material values, such as self-expression, quality of life, and environmental sustainability. This transition is often associated with wealthier societies where basic needs are met, leading individuals to prioritize social and ethical issues over economic ones. Postmaterialism highlights the changing priorities of citizens in advanced industrial societies.

Answer 95

The Marxist approach to political culture focuses on how economic structures and class relations shape political beliefs and values. It argues that dominant ideologies serve the interests of the ruling class while marginalizing the perspectives of the working class and oppressed groups. This perspective emphasizes the need for critical analysis of how political culture perpetuates inequalities and reinforces societal power dynamics.

Answer 96

The conservatism approach to political culture emphasizes preserving traditional values, institutions, and social norms as essential for societal stability and cohesion. It advocates for incremental change rather than radical transformation, prioritizing continuity and the maintenance of established order. This approach often views political culture as a means of reinforcing moral and ethical standards within society

Answer 97

Social capital decline refers to the weakening of social networks, trust, and norms that facilitate cooperation and collective action within communities. This decline can result from increased individualism, urbanization, and economic changes that disrupt traditional social bonds. The erosion of social capital can lead to a range of social issues, including decreased civic engagement, social isolation, and a lack of community cohesion.

Answer 98

Consumer capitalism is an economic system that emphasizes consumer spending and the acquisition of goods and services as central to economic growth and social status. It encourages individuals to participate in the market as consumers, shaping identities and values around consumption patterns. While consumer capitalism can drive innovation and economic expansion, it also raises concerns about materialism, environmental sustainability, and social inequality.

Answer 99

Political polarization refers to a society's growing ideological and partisan divide, often characterized by extreme positions and decreased willingness to compromise. This polarization can manifest in heightened tensions between political factions, leading to increased conflict and fragmentation. Political polarization can undermine democratic processes and discourse, making it challenging to address collective issues.

Answer 100

The dominant ideology model posits that the media primarily serves the interests of powerful groups and perpetuates the prevailing ideology of the ruling class. This model argues that media representations reinforce existing power structures and cultural norms, often marginalizing alternative viewpoints. The dominant ideology model highlights the role of media in shaping public perception and sustaining systemic inequalities.

Answer 101

The pluralist model suggests that the media serves as a platform for diverse voices and opinions, facilitating a marketplace of ideas where various interests compete for attention. In this model, the media acts as a mediator between the public and policymakers, shaping political agendas while reflecting the multiplicity of perspectives within society. The pluralist model emphasizes the role of media in promoting democratic debate and engagement.

Answer 102

The elite values model suggests that media content is primarily shaped by the values and perspectives of a small, influential group of elites, including media owners and journalists. This model emphasizes that media narratives often reflect the interests of those in power, leading to a homogenization of viewpoints and a lack of diversity in coverage. The elite values model raises concerns about the potential for bias and the exclusion of marginalized voices in public discourse.

Answer 103

The market model posits that media operates as a business driven by profit motives and audience demand. In this model, media organizations prioritize content that attracts viewers and advertisers, shaping political narratives based on market forces rather than democratic values. The market model highlights the influence of commercialization on media practices and the potential for sensationalism or superficial coverage of political issues.

Answer 104

The sleeping dog's theory suggests that certain societal issues or grievances should remain unaddressed to avoid exacerbating conflict or unrest. This concept is often applied in political contexts where acknowledging a contentious issue could provoke backlash or instability. The theory emphasizes the importance of caution and the potential benefits of allowing certain issues to remain dormant rather than provoking active debate.

Answer 105

Pro Argument for Multiculturalism: Multiculturalism enriches society by introducing diverse cultures and perspectives, fostering creativity and innovation. This cultural variety encourages respect and understanding, leading to a stronger sense of community and belonging. Ultimately, it promotes social cohesion, helping to create a harmonious society that values diversity. Contra Argument Against Multiculturalism: Critics argue that multiculturalism can lead to social fragmentation, as distinct cultural groups may become isolated, eroding a shared national identity. This separation can hinder cooperation and mutual understanding, increasing the potential for conflict. Furthermore, cultural relativism may prevent necessary critiques of harmful practices within certain communities, impeding progress on universal human rights.

Answer 106

Liberal secularism is a political philosophy that advocates for the separation of religion and state, ensuring that the government remains neutral on religious matters while protecting individual freedoms and rights. This approach promotes pluralism, allowing diverse beliefs to coexist without state interference, and aims to create a fair and just society. Liberal secularism emphasizes the importance of rational discourse in public life, often prioritizing reason and evidence over religious doctrine in decision-making processes.

Answer 107

Equality feminism is a strand of feminist thought that emphasizes achieving gender equality through equal rights and opportunities for men and women. This approach advocates for legal and political reforms to address discrimination and promote equal treatment in various spheres, including education, employment, and politics. Equality feminists focus on dismantling systemic barriers that hinder women's advancement while emphasizing the importance of individual agency and empowerment.

Answer 108

Difference feminism posits that men and women have fundamentally different experiences, perspectives, and values, often arising from social and cultural conditioning. This approach argues that recognizing and valuing these differences is essential for achieving true gender equality rather than solely focusing on equal treatment. Difference feminists advocate for policies and practices that account for women's unique experiences, emphasizing the importance of addressing specific needs and challenges women face in society.

Answer 109

According to Ronald Inglehart, the decline of civic engagement is largely attributed to shifts in values and societal structures, particularly in post-industrial societies. Inglehart argues that as societies become wealthier and more secure, citizens tend to prioritize individualism and personal fulfillment over collective participation in civic activities. This shift leads to a decline in traditional forms of civic engagement, such as voting and community involvement, as people increasingly focus on personal interests and lifestyles rather than communal responsibilities. Additionally, Inglehart’s research suggests that younger generations, influenced by a changing cultural landscape, may feel less connected to traditional civic institutions, further contributing to this decline.

Answer 110

Populist anti-intellectualism refers to a political stance that rejects elite expertise and promotes the idea that ordinary people possess common sense and are better suited to understand political and social issues than intellectuals or experts. This viewpoint often arises in populist movements, which frame intellectuals as part of a disconnected elite that fails to understand the needs and concerns of the general populace. The consequences of populist anti-intellectualism can include the dismissal of scientific evidence and expert opinions in policy-making, leading to decisions prioritising emotion and populist sentiment over informed analysis, ultimately undermining democratic discourse and governance.

Answer 111

Multipolarity refers to a global power structure where multiple states or actors hold significant influence, contrasting with unipolarity (one dominant power) or bipolarity (two dominant powers). This system encourages diverse perspectives and actions in international relations, often resulting in more balanced power dynamics. Multipolarity can lead to increased cooperation and competition among various states, affecting global governance and stability.

Answer 112

Imperial overreach occurs when a state expands its influence or territory beyond its capacity to manage effectively, leading to economic, military, or political strain. This phenomenon can result in diminished power and credibility and backlash from other nations or groups. Historical examples include the fall of empires that overstretched their resources, contributing to their decline.

Answer 113

Global governance refers to the way international affairs are managed across countries, encompassing institutions, policies, and norms that facilitate cooperation among states. It involves various actors, including governments, international organizations, non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, working together to address global challenges. Effective global governance aims to promote peace, security, and sustainable development while respecting the sovereignty of individual states.

Answer 114

BRICS is an acronym for Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa, representing a group of emerging economies that cooperate on various political, economic, and social issues. These countries collectively account for a significant portion of the world's population and GDP, aiming to enhance their influence in global affairs. The BRICS nations advocate for reforming international financial institutions to reflect the changing global landscape and promote development.

Answer 115

The Bretton Woods system established a framework for international economic cooperation following World War II, creating institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. It aimed to promote monetary stability, facilitate trade, and provide financial assistance to needy countries. The system collapsed in the 1970s, leading to a shift toward floating exchange rates and establishing new trade agreements, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO).

Answer 116

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization that aims to promote global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, and reduce poverty. It provides financial assistance and advice to member countries facing economic difficulties, often requiring policy reforms in exchange for support. The IMF plays a crucial role in stabilizing the global economy through its surveillance and lending programs.

Answer 117

The World Bank is a group of international financial institutions providing loans and grants to developing countries for development projects to reduce poverty and promote sustainable economic growth. Its focus is on long-term development through investments in infrastructure, education, health, and agriculture. The World Bank works alongside countries to improve living standards and foster economic resilience.

Answer 118

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international body that regulates and facilitates international trade between nations. It provides a forum for negotiating trade agreements, resolving disputes, and monitoring trade policies to ensure fair competition. The WTO aims to promote free trade and reduce trade barriers, contributing to global economic growth.

Answer 119

The United Nations (UN) was founded in 1945 to promote peace, security, and cooperation among member states. It addresses many global issues, including human rights, humanitarian aid, and sustainable development. The UN operates through various agencies and programs, facilitating dialogue and collaboration to tackle challenges facing the international community.

Answer 120

The liberal approach emphasizes protecting individual rights and freedoms. It advocates for policing methods that prioritize community engagement and accountability. It promotes reforms to reduce discrimination and enhance transparency within law enforcement agencies. This approach seeks to build trust between the police and the communities they serve. The conservative approach often prioritizes law and order, advocating for strong policing measures to maintain social stability and public safety. This perspective may support increased funding for law enforcement and stricter enforcement of laws to deter crime. Critics argue that this approach can lead to over-policing and marginalising vulnerable communities. The radical approach critiques traditional policing as a mechanism of social control, arguing that it disproportionately targets marginalized groups and reinforces systemic inequalities. This perspective advocates for transformative changes to law enforcement practices, including the abolition of the police or significant reforms to create more equitable systems of safety and justice. The radical approach emphasizes the need to address root causes of crime, such as poverty and inequality.

Answer 121

Civil police refer to law enforcement agencies that operate under civilian control and focus on maintaining public order, preventing crime, and enforcing laws. Unlike military or paramilitary forces, civil police are typically tasked with community policing, crime investigation, and protecting citizens' rights. They serve and protect the public while upholding democratic values and civil liberties.

Answer 122

Political police are law enforcement agencies or units tasked with monitoring and suppressing political dissent. They often operate in authoritarian or totalitarian regimes. Their primary functions include surveillance, infiltration of opposition groups, and enforcing political conformity. Political police are typically viewed as tools of state repression, undermining civil liberties and human rights.

Answer 123

Realist approaches international security emphasize the role of power and national interest in shaping state behaviour. Realists argue that states operate in an anarchic international system where competition for power and security drives their actions. This perspective often prioritizes military capabilities and deterrence strategies to ensure state survival and maintain a balance of power.

Answer 124

A police state is a government that maintains strict control over its citizens through the use of police power, often characterized by surveillance, suppression of dissent, and the absence of civil liberties. In a police state, law enforcement agencies may operate with little oversight, leading to abuses of power and violations of human rights. Such regimes prioritize security and control over individual freedoms, resulting in a climate of fear and oppression.

Answer 125

Liberal approaches to international security focus on cooperation, international institutions, and promoting democracy and human rights. Liberals believe states can achieve security through diplomacy, trade, and multilateral agreements, reducing the likelihood of conflict. This perspective emphasizes the role of norms and values in fostering peaceful relations among states.

Answer 126

Critical approaches to international security challenge traditional understandings of security by questioning the assumptions underlying state-centric paradigms. These approaches often emphasize human security, social justice, and the impact of global inequalities on security dynamics. Critical theorists advocate for a broader understanding of economic, environmental, and social security.

Answer 127

Asymmetrical warfare refers to conflict between parties of unequal military capabilities, where the weaker party employs unconventional tactics to exploit the vulnerabilities of the stronger adversary. This warfare often involves guerrilla tactics, cyber attacks, and terrorism, challenging traditional military strategies. Asymmetrical warfare can complicate conventional military responses and alter the dynamics of conflict.

Answer 128

Cyber warfare involves using digital attacks to disrupt, damage, or gain unauthorized access to computer systems and networks of states, organizations, or individuals. It can be employed for various purposes, including espionage, sabotage, and propaganda. As technology advances, cyber warfare poses significant challenges to national security and international relations, raising concerns about privacy, security, and the rules of engagement in the digital realm.

Answer 129

Transnational terrorism refers to terrorist activities that cross national borders, involving non-state actors who operate in multiple countries. This form of terrorism often aims to achieve political or ideological goals through violent means, targeting civilians and state institutions. Transnational terrorism poses unique challenges for international security, requiring coordinated responses among nations to address the threat effectively.

Answer 130

A proxy war is a conflict in which two opposing countries or parties support rival factions in a third country, often to achieve their geopolitical objectives without direct military involvement. Proxy wars can involve financial aid, military support, or training, allowing the primary actors to exert influence while minimizing their own casualties. These conflicts can lead to prolonged instability in the affected region and complicate international relations.

Answer 131

Human security is a holistic approach that prioritizes the protection of individuals and communities rather than solely focusing on state security. It encompasses various dimensions, including economic, food, health, environmental, and personal security, emphasizing the interconnectedness of these factors. The concept of human security advocates for addressing root causes of insecurity, such as poverty, inequality, and violence, to create a safer world for all.

Answer 132

Unipolarity describes an international system in which a single state holds dominant power and influence over global affairs. This structure can lead to stability as the unipolar power establishes rules and norms, but it may also provoke resistance from other states seeking to challenge its dominance. Unipolarity often shapes international alliances and conflict dynamics, impacting how states engage with one another.

Answer 133

Relative gains refer to the advantages one state gains over another regarding power or resources, often leading to competitive behaviour in international relations. In contrast, absolute gains focus on the overall benefits achieved by a state, regardless of how they compare to others. Understanding these concepts is crucial for analyzing state behaviour, especially in cooperation and conflict.

Answer 134

The Washington Consensus is a set of economic policy prescriptions for developing countries, emphasizing free-market reforms, fiscal discipline, and trade and investment liberalisation. It emerged in the late 20th century as a response to economic crises in Latin America, advocating for structural adjustments and neoliberal policies. Critics argue that the Washington Consensus often overlooks these countries' social and political contexts, leading to negative outcomes such as increased inequality and social unrest.

Answer 135

The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the UN, settling legal disputes between states and providing advisory opinions on international legal issues. The International Criminal Court (ICC), on the other hand, prosecutes individuals for war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity. Both courts aim to uphold international law and promote accountability for violations, contributing to global justice and the rule of law.

Answer 136

The UN Secretariat is the administrative body of the United Nations, headed by the Secretary-General, who serves as the chief administrative officer. It is responsible for carrying out the day-to-day work of the UN, including implementing resolutions, managing peacekeeping operations, and facilitating international cooperation. The Secretariat is vital in coordinating efforts across various UN agencies and supporting member states in achieving their goals.

Answer 137

The United Nations General Assembly is one of the six main organs of the UN, comprising all member states, each with one vote. It serves as a forum for discussing and coordinating international cooperation on various issues, including peace, security, and development. While not legally binding, the General Assembly adopts resolutions that carry significant political weight and reflect global consensus on various matters.

Answer 138

The UN Security Council is responsible for maintaining international peace and security, with the authority to impose sanctions, authorize military action, and establish peacekeeping missions. Composed of 15 member states, including five permanent members with veto power, the Security Council is critical in responding to global conflicts and crises. Its decisions can have far-reaching implications for international relations and state sovereignty.

Answer 139

- exercise of control of the government through making and applying public decisions - what concerns the state - personnel and machinery of the government - legitimate exercise of authority -takes place within a polity(a society organized through the exercise of political authority)

Answer 140

Positionality refers to recognising how an individual’s social and political identity (such as race, gender, class, and ethnicity) influences their perspectives, experiences, and power dynamics within a specific context. It acknowledges that a person's position in society shapes how they see and interpret the world and how they are perceived by others. In academic and activist settings, understanding positionality helps to address biases and privilege, promoting more reflective and inclusive approaches to research and social engagement.

Answer 141

Liberalism is a political and economic ideology emphasising individual freedoms, equality before the law, democratic governance, and free-market principles. Originating from Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke, it advocates for limited government intervention and the protection of civil liberties, including freedom of speech, religion, and property rights. In contemporary politics, liberalism supports social progress, human rights, and a balanced approach between state intervention and market-driven economies.

Answer 142

Conservatism is a political ideology that emphasizes tradition, social stability, and maintaining established institutions, often resisting rapid social change. Rooted in thinkers like Edmund Burke, conservatism values continuity, authority, and gradual reforms rather than revolutionary upheaval. In contemporary politics, it advocates for limited government intervention in the economy, a strong national defense, and policies that uphold traditional moral values.

Answer 143

Fascism is an authoritarian, nationalist political ideology that emphasizes centralized control, dictatorial leadership, and the suppression of political opposition. It originated in early 20th-century Europe, particularly under Mussolini in Italy and Hitler in Germany, advocating for a strong state, aggressive nationalism, and militarism. Fascism rejects democracy, liberalism, and socialism, often promoting a vision of unity through exclusion, glorifying the nation or race above individual rights.

Answer 144

Post-decolonialism refers to the academic and political analysis of the legacy of colonialism and its continuing effects on formerly colonized countries and peoples. It examines how the historical experience of colonization shapes power dynamics, identity, and culture and challenges the dominance of Western narratives. This framework seeks to deconstruct colonial ideologies and advocate for the empowerment and representation of marginalized communities in the post-colonial world.

Answer 145

Nations as Cultural Communities: These are defined by shared cultural elements such as language, traditions, religion, and historical experiences. In this view, a nation is united by a common heritage and identity people feel they belong to, often passed down through generations = membership in natural and exclusive. Examples include ethnic nationalism, where the sense of nationhood is closely tied to cultural and ethnic characteristics. Nations as Political Communities: The nation is defined by shared political values and citizenship rather than culture. A nation as a political community emphasizes common rights, duties, and participation in a political system where belonging is based on legal and civic criteria rather than cultural heritage = membership is voluntary and inclusive for all. This view aligns with civic nationalism, where people from diverse cultural backgrounds can unite under a common political framework, such as a constitution or democratic institutions.

Answer 146

It involves the growing role of financial markets in the economy, where financial instruments and practices become central to economic activities, often overshadowing traditional productive activities. This trend has significant implications, such as prioritizing short-term profit maximization over long-term investments in productive capacities, leading to increased income inequality and economic instability. Financialization can also affect corporate strategies, as firms may focus more on shareholder value and financial engineering rather than innovation and job creation.

Answer 147

Relativism has implications in various fields, including ethics (moral relativism), where it argues that moral judgments are based on cultural standards rather than universal principles. While it promotes tolerance and understanding of diverse perspectives, critics argue that it can lead to a lack of objective standards for evaluating beliefs and practices, potentially allowing harmful actions to be justified under the guise of cultural differences.

Answer 148

A sovereign debt crisis occurs when a country cannot meet its debt obligations, leading to default fears. This situation often arises from excessive borrowing, economic mismanagement, or external shocks, causing significant economic turmoil and necessitating intervention from international financial institutions. The consequences can include austerity measures, social unrest, and losing access to international capital markets.

Answer 149

The paradox of thrift is an economic theory suggesting that while it is prudent for individuals to save money, if everyone saves more during a recession, aggregate demand decreases, leading to lower overall income and potentially worsening the economic situation. This phenomenon highlights the conflict between individual financial prudence and the collective economic health of society. It demonstrates how collective behavior can undermine overall economic stability.

Answer 150

Market fundamentalism is the belief that free markets should govern all economic and social activities, often dismissing the need for regulation or government intervention. Proponents argue that market forces are the most efficient means of resource allocation and economic growth. At the same time, critics contend that such an ideology can lead to economic instability, inequality, and the neglect of social welfare. This perspective has been influential in shaping neoliberal policies.

Answer 151

Neoliberal globalization refers to the process of integrating economies, cultures, and political systems on a global scale, driven by neoliberal policies emphasizing deregulation, free markets, and reduced government intervention. It promotes the idea that economic growth is best achieved through open markets and competition, often leading to increased trade and investment across borders. Critics argue that it can exacerbate inequality, undermine labor rights, and prioritize corporate interests over local communities.

Answer 152

Social reflexivity refers to how individuals and societies reflect on and analyze their social structures, behaviours, and norms. This self-awareness allows for critical evaluation and adaptation of practices based on changing contexts and experiences. It plays a significant role in understanding how identities and power dynamics are constructed and can lead to social change.

Answer 153

Liberal multiculturalism advocates for recognising and accommodating diverse cultural identities within a framework that promotes individual rights and freedoms. It seeks to balance the rights of minority cultures with the principles of liberal democracy, emphasizing equality and respect for differences. Critics argue that it may inadequately address structural inequalities and lead to superficial forms of cultural recognition without addressing deeper issues of power and justice.

Answer 154

Pluralist multiculturalism emphasizes the coexistence of multiple cultural groups within a society, advocating for a framework that recognizes and values diversity while promoting social cohesion. It encourages dialogue and interaction among cultural groups, fostering mutual respect and understanding. This approach recognizes that cultural differences can enrich society but also requires ongoing negotiation of power dynamics and resource distribution.

Answer 155

Cosmopolitan multiculturalism advocates for global citizenship and the idea that individuals belong to a global community, transcending national and cultural boundaries. It emphasizes the importance of cultural exchange, mutual respect, and shared values while recognizing the interconnectedness of global issues. This approach promotes the idea that individuals should engage with and learn from diverse cultures, fostering empathy and cooperation in a globalized world.

Answer 156

Value pluralism is the philosophical concept that acknowledges the coexistence of multiple, often conflicting, values and moral principles within a society. It asserts that no single value system can adequately capture the diversity of human experiences and beliefs, allowing for a range of perspectives and ethical frameworks. This approach encourages tolerance and dialogue among differing value systems while recognizing that conflicts may arise from these differences.

Answer 157

Interculturalism is an approach that emphasizes the interaction and dialogue between different cultures, promoting mutual understanding and respect. It advocates for active engagement and collaboration among cultural groups, aiming to create a cohesive society while recognizing and valuing diversity. This perspective encourages individuals to learn from one another and find common ground, fostering social harmony and integration.

Answer 158

The secularization thesis posits that as societies modernize, religion loses its social significance and influence over individuals and institutions. This theory suggests that scientific rationality, technological advancement, and social changes lead to a decline in religious authority and belief systems. While some argue that secularization is evident in many Western societies, others contend that religion remains a powerful social force, adapting and evolving in response to modernity.

Answer 159

The clash of civilizations thesis, proposed by political scientist Samuel P. Huntington, posits that future conflicts will primarily occur between cultural and religious identities rather than ideological or political ones. Huntington argues that the major world civilizations—such as Western, Islamic, and Confucian—will clash due to fundamental differences in values and beliefs. Critics of this thesis contend that it oversimplifies complex geopolitical issues and can promote divisiveness by framing cultural differences as inherently conflictual.

Answer 160

Performance legitimacy refers to the idea that a government's legitimacy is derived from its ability to deliver effective governance, maintain order, and provide essential services to its citizens. Unlike traditional forms of legitimacy based on ideology, tradition, or democratic processes, performance legitimacy emphasizes tangible results, such as economic growth, public safety, infrastructure development, and social welfare.

Answer 161

Homogenization refers to the process through which diverse cultures and practices become more similar, often leading to a uniform global culture. This phenomenon is frequently driven by globalization, mass media, and consumerism, where dominant cultures (typically Western) spread their values, norms, and products worldwide, potentially erasing local customs and traditions. Critics argue that homogenization can lead to cultural imperialism and the loss of cultural diversity, as unique identities are subsumed under a dominant global culture. On the other hand, localisation is the process of adapting global ideas, products, and practices to fit local cultures and contexts. It emphasizes preserving and promoting local traditions, customs, and identities in the face of global influences. Localization allows communities to integrate global trends while maintaining cultural distinctiveness, fostering resilience against homogenizing forces. It can result in hybrid cultural expressions, where global elements are blended with local practices, enhancing cultural diversity rather than diminishing it.

Answer 162

Society is a complex and structured network of relationships among individuals who share a common culture, institutions, and social norms. It encompasses a range of social interactions, group behaviors, and organized systems that bind individuals together, facilitating cooperation and coexistence.

Answer 163

The monopoly on violence is a concept in political science and sociology, often associated with the work of sociologist Max Weber. It refers to the idea that the state is the only entity within a given territory that has the legitimate authority to use, threaten, or sanction violence. This monopoly is essential for maintaining order, enforcing laws, and providing security to citizens. By controlling the means of violence—such as law enforcement and the military—the state can regulate conflict and protect the rights of individuals, thereby establishing a framework within which social and political interactions occur. However, when this monopoly is challenged or undermined, such as in cases of civil unrest, insurgency, or weak governance, it can lead to instability, violence, and a breakdown of social order.

Answer 164

A police state is a government system characterized by the excessive use of police power to enforce laws and maintain order, often at the expense of individual freedoms and civil liberties. In a police state, authorities may monitor citizens' activities closely, restrict dissent, and suppress political opposition through surveillance, intimidation, and sometimes violence. Such a system typically arises in contexts of political repression, where the government prioritizes control and security over democratic governance, leading to a lack of accountability and transparency.

Answer 165

Social democracy stands for a balance between market mechanisms and state intervention. It accepts capitalism as an effective mechanism for generating wealth while advocating for state measures to ensure wealth is distributed based on moral principles rather than solely market outcomes.

Answer 166

Cosmopolitanism posits that all humans belong to a single moral community, implying that individuals have ethical obligations to others regardless of nationality or affiliations. It often supports global social justice, including redistributing wealth from wealthier to poorer nations and expanding economic and social rights to address global inequalities. Cosmopolitanism challenges traditional nationalism by advocating for a broader sense of belonging and solidarity that transcends national boundaries.

Answer 167

!!! Fundamentalism is marked by believing certain principles as essential ‘truths’ with unchallengeable and overriding authority, leading to doctrinal certainty and inflexibility. Religious fundamentalism advocates integrating religious values into public and political life. It rejects the separation of religion from secular affairs and promotes the idea that religion should guide law, social conduct, and governance. Fundamentalism often arises in societies facing a crisis of identity or undergoing significant social changes, such as the spread of secularism or postcolonial challenges. It provides a means of reclaiming or asserting cultural and moral values.

Answer 168

Demand-side pressures are those that emanate from society itself, usually through the mechanism of electoral democracy. The New Right argues that electoral competition encourages politicians to ‘outbid’ one another by making promises of increased spending and more generous government programmes, regardless of the long-term damage that such policies inflict on the economy in the form of increased taxes, higher inflation and the ‘crowding out’ of investment.

Answer 169

Chauvinism refers to an excessive or aggressive loyalty to a particular group, often coupled with a disdain for other groups. The term originally described a fervent nationalism, but it has since evolved to encompass a range of prejudices, including gender chauvinism, which reflects an exaggerated belief in the superiority of one gender over another, particularly the belief that men are superior to women. Chauvinism can manifest in various forms, leading to discrimination, exclusion, and hostility towards those perceived as outsiders or inferior.

Answer 170

Ideological legitimacy refers to the justification of a government's authority based on its adherence to a particular ideology or set of beliefs that resonates with its citizens. This form of legitimacy arises when the ruling authority promotes its governance and policies as aligned with the values, principles, or ideologies embraced by the population, such as democracy, socialism, or nationalism.

IPOL midterm Flashcards

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