PPG concepts Flashcards

Question

Policy or political acumen

Answer 1

Policy or political acumen refers to the ability to understand and navigate the complexities of political processes and policy-making effectively. This concept has roots in the study of political science, where recognizing the nuances of governance and the interplay between different stakeholders is essential for successful leadership and advocacy. Today, political acumen is vital for politicians, lobbyists, and public administrators, as it allows them to craft effective policies, build coalitions, and influence public opinion. Its significance lies in enhancing decision-making and strategic planning, ultimately leading to more informed and responsive governance that addresses the needs and concerns of constituents.

Answer 2

pre-existing governance organisations, institutions and policies in which any new decision must be situated

Answer 3

the capacity of any given actor or group to take a decision in accordance with their wishes, values, ideals, and responsibilities

Answer 4

* The Rule of Law (Constitution) * Freedoms & Rights that balance positive & negative liberties * Democratic participation (free & fair elections) and representation by an elected assembly * Vertical Accountability: government answers to the public via democratic elections * Horizontal Accountability: separation of powers between legislature, judiciary and executive (Trias Politica) * Equality in Justice for all citizens before the law – a “veil of ignorance” * Reasoned decision-making

Answer 5

refers to an accurate assessment of the "business-as-usual" scenario—essentially what would happen if no changes were made and existing trends continued. It serves as a reference point for evaluating the effects of proposed policy actions. Current Conditions: Understanding the status quo. Current and Expected Trends: Analyzing ongoing trends that could affect the situation. Effects of Existing Policies: Evaluating how current policies are impacting the baseline conditions. Foreseeable Policies or Programs: Considering the potential impacts of other policies that may come into play.

Answer 6

a structured approach that emphasizes a logical and systematic process for making choices. Originating from economic theories, this model assumes that decision-makers can identify problems, gather relevant information, weigh options, and select the most effective solution based on objective criteria. In practice, it is commonly used in governmental and organizational settings to guide policy development and implementation. Its relevance lies in promoting thorough analysis and justification of decisions, although it may overlook the complexities and unpredictability of real-world scenarios.

Answer 7

suggests that policy decisions are often made through small, gradual changes rather than sweeping reforms. This model emerged as a critique of the rational decision-making process, emphasizing that policymakers frequently work within existing frameworks and adapt policies incrementally based on past experiences and feedback. Contemporary examples can be seen in various sectors' budget adjustments and regulatory reforms. Its significance lies in recognizing the practical constraints of policy-making, allowing for flexibility and learning over time, albeit sometimes at the cost of innovation or comprehensive solutions.

Answer 8

presents a more chaotic view of decision-making, arguing that policies emerge from a mix of problems, solutions, and participants in a seemingly random manner. Developed by Cohen, March, and Olsen, this model highlights the unpredictability of policy processes, where decisions can arise without a clear agenda or rational analysis. This model is often applied in organizations or settings with ambiguity and conflicting interests. Its relevance is in acknowledging that not all decision-making follows a linear path and that political and organizational environments can lead to serendipitous outcomes, emphasizing the importance of adaptability and timing in policy-making.

Answer 9

refers to the defining and presenting a particular problem in a way that shapes public perception and influences the policy agenda. Originating from communication and political theory, this concept highlights how the framing of an issue can affect the opinions, beliefs, and actions of stakeholders, including policymakers and the public. Current examples include how climate change is framed either as an environmental crisis or an economic opportunity, which can lead to different policy responses. The relevance of issue framing lies in its power to steer discussions, prioritize certain aspects of a problem, and mobilize support or opposition, thereby playing a crucial role in determining which issues receive attention and how solutions are formulated.

Answer 10

refers to a scenario where decision-makers are presented with one clearly favorable option alongside a range of undesirable alternatives, effectively making the preferred choice the only viable option. This concept is rooted in the idea that by highlighting a good option while minimizing or presenting the others as unfeasible or less beneficial, decision-makers can steer stakeholders toward a specific course of action. An example can be seen in environmental policy discussions, where a government might promote renewable energy as the optimal choice while framing fossil fuels as harmful and outdated. The significance of Hobson's choice lies in its ability to simplify complex decisions, making the preferred option appear more attractive, but it can also lead to concerns about transparency and the exclusion of diverse perspectives in the policy-making process.

Answer 11

refers to the maximum amount individuals or groups are prepared to spend to secure a specific benefit or avoid a loss associated with a policy change. This concept is rooted in economic theory and is often used in cost-benefit analysis to evaluate the potential impact of proposed policies, particularly in areas like environmental regulation, public health, and infrastructure development. Current examples include assessing public support for new transportation projects or environmental protections by gauging how much people would be willing to invest in these initiatives. The relevance of willingness to pay lies in its ability to provide policymakers with insights into public priorities and values, helping to allocate resources effectively and justify policy choices based on the perceived benefits to society. However, it can also raise ethical considerations regarding equity, as not all individuals may have the same capacity to express their willingness to pay, potentially skewing policy outcomes in favor of wealthier stakeholders.

Answer 12

an action is morally right or wrong in and of itself, regardless of the intended consequences of that action. An ethical framework that emphasizes the importance of following rules, duties, and obligations when determining the morality of an action, regardless of the consequences that may arise. Rooted in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, this approach asserts that certain actions are inherently right or wrong based on established principles and moral laws. For example, telling the truth or fulfilling a promise is considered morally obligatory, regardless of any potential negative outcomes. In contemporary contexts, deontological morality is often applied in legal and professional ethics, where adherence to codes of conduct is paramount. Its significance lies in providing a clear and consistent approach to ethical decision-making, promoting accountability and integrity, although it can sometimes conflict with consequentialist perspectives that prioritize outcomes over rules.

Answer 13

an ethical framework that evaluates the morality of actions based on their consequences, specifically aiming to maximize overall happiness or utility for the greatest number of people. Rooted in the philosophies of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, utilitarianism posits that the best action is the one that produces the most favorable balance of good over harm. For instance, a policy decision that benefits a majority, even if it disadvantages a minority, may be deemed justifiable within this framework. In contemporary settings, utilitarian principles are often applied in public policy, economics, and health care, where cost-benefit analyses aim to determine the most effective interventions. The relevance of utilitarian morality lies in its pragmatic approach to ethics, promoting outcomes that enhance collective well-being. However, critics argue that it can lead to morally questionable decisions, as it may sacrifice individual rights and justice for the sake of the greater good.

Answer 14

1. a decision-making principle (maximising benefits for the greatest number of people) 2. good evidence (to enhance our understanding of problems, objectives, and potential solutions) 3. a coherent objective 4. some logic: deduction, induction, abduction

Answer 15

is a form of influence that a country or organization exerts by attracting and persuading others, rather than through coercion or force. Coined by political scientist Joseph Nye in the late 20th century, this concept emphasizes the use of cultural appeal, political values, and foreign policies to shape global perceptions and encourage voluntary cooperation. Current examples include the United States leveraging Hollywood, music, and educational exchange programs to enhance its global image, or South Korea promoting its culture through K-pop and media. Soft power is significant because it enables countries to foster goodwill, build alliances, and achieve strategic goals without military or economic pressure, although its effectiveness can be limited by conflicting interests or cultural resistance.

Answer 16

Decisionism, associated with the ideas of political theorist Carl Schmitt, emphasizes the role of authority and sovereignty in decision-making, particularly in exceptional situations where quick, decisive action is needed. This approach values the ability of a leader or governing body to make bold decisions based on their judgment, even when it bypasses standard procedures or expert advice. Decisionism is often seen in times of crisis, where decisions are made rapidly by those in power without prolonged consultation, focusing on the legitimacy of decisive action rather than procedural consensus. Conversely, technocracy prioritizes expertise and data-driven decision-making by specialists, scientists, or technical experts. In this model, decision-making relies on specialized knowledge and analysis to solve complex problems, assuming that experts, rather than elected officials, are best suited to make informed choices. This approach is prevalent in policy areas like climate science, public health, and economic planning, where technical expertise is essential.

Answer 17

Pragmatism is a philosophical approach that values practical outcomes and real-world applications over abstract principles or theoretical consistency. Emerging in the late 19th century, pragmatism argues that the truth of an idea or policy lies in its usefulness and effectiveness in achieving desired results. Rather than being bound by fixed doctrines, pragmatists adapt their ideas to suit the context, focusing on what works best in a given situation. Today, pragmatism is seen in policy-making, business, and law, where flexible, outcome-oriented approaches are often preferred over rigid adherence to ideology. Its relevance lies in its adaptability, as it encourages openness to new ideas and solutions that can address current challenges. However, critics argue that pragmatism can sometimes lack moral or ideological consistency, potentially overlooking long-term values for short-term gains.

Answer 18

refers to the credibility and trustworthiness of a person or institution in providing knowledge, particularly in areas requiring specialized expertise. This authority is granted to individuals or groups recognized as reliable sources of information, such as scientists, academics, or expert institutions, based on their knowledge, qualifications, and demonstrated competence in a specific field. The concept originates from epistemology, the study of knowledge, where understanding the sources and justification of beliefs is central. In contemporary society, epistemic authority is significant in fields like medicine, law, and environmental science, where experts’ insights guide public understanding and policy decisions. Epistemic authority is valuable for promoting informed decision-making and helping people navigate complex information. However, reliance on epistemic authority can be challenged by misinformation, public mistrust, or situations where authorities disagree, highlighting the need for transparency and accountability in maintaining this trust.

Answer 19

De jure authority refers to the power granted by legal or formal frameworks, where an individual or institution is authorized by law or official rules to hold and exercise power. This is authority "by law." For example, an elected president has de jure authority to govern because they hold office through legal means and are officially recognized as the legitimate leader. De facto authority, on the other hand, is the power exercised in practice, regardless of whether it has formal legal backing. It refers to authority "in fact" rather than "in law." A military leader who takes control of a country through a coup, for instance, may hold de facto authority by effectively governing, even though they lack de jure authority under the nation’s legal system. The relevance of understanding de facto versus de jure authority is important in political science and law, as it highlights situations where actual control does not match legal legitimacy. Such situations often lead to debates about legitimacy, especially in contexts of political transitions, disputed governments, or conflicts between official and practical sources of power.

Answer 20

refers to the alignment and coordination of policies and services across different geographic regions within a country. It ensures that national standards, regulations, and services are consistently implemented and accessible across territories, preventing disparities in policy outcomes between regions. The concept is particularly relevant in governance structures where local governments or agencies have varying levels of autonomy, such as in federal or decentralized systems. In practice, maintaining territorial synchrony can be seen in efforts to provide equal healthcare, education, or infrastructure standards nationwide, regardless of local differences. The importance of territorial synchrony lies in promoting equity and unity within a country, as well as ensuring that all citizens, regardless of location, receive similar levels of public services and protections. However, challenges to territorial synchrony can arise when regions have distinct needs or priorities, which may lead to disparities in service quality, known as an "implementation deficit."

Answer 21

refers to the approach to public problem‐solving in which we no longer simply rely on the state to impose solutions, but instead conceive of problem‐solving as a collaborative effort in which a network of actors, including both state and non‐state organizations, play a part

Answer 22

nvolves calculating and comparing the total costs and total benefits of a project, policy, or action in monetary terms. CBA quantifies both the costs (such as resources, time, or environmental impact) and the benefits (such as economic gains, improved quality of life, or social value) to determine whether the benefits outweigh the costs. This method is useful for assessing whether an initiative is worth pursuing based on its overall economic impact. However, one challenge with CBA is that not all benefits or costs are easily quantifiable in monetary terms, particularly social and environmental factors.

Answer 23

where there are no clear and generally accepted rules and norms according to which politics is to be conducted and policy measures are to be agreed upon.

Answer 24

is an approach where choices are made based on the evaluation and management of potential risks involved in various options. This method involves assessing the likelihood and impact of risks to minimize negative outcomes and increase the chances of success, particularly in complex or uncertain situations. Originally used in fields like finance, engineering, and safety, it has expanded into areas like public policy, healthcare, and environmental planning, where decision-makers must balance benefits against potential hazards. For example, in public health policy, a risk-based approach might involve evaluating the potential spread of a disease when deciding on vaccination strategies or lockdown measures. The relevance of risk-based decisions lies in their ability to systematically address uncertainty, helping policymakers, businesses, and institutions to make informed choices that weigh both short-term and long-term impacts. However, these decisions can sometimes be constrained by incomplete data or unforeseen factors, which may lead to over- or underestimating risks and affecting outcomes.

Answer 25

focuses on comparing the costs of different ways to achieve a specific outcome or goal without necessarily converting those outcomes into monetary terms. CEA is often used when the primary objective is clear but difficult to monetize, such as improving public health, educational outcomes, or environmental quality. For example, CEA may compare different treatments for a disease based on cost per life saved or cost per unit improvement in health. CEA is valuable in resource allocation when effectiveness is the main concern, though it does not provide a direct measure of total benefit relative to cost, as in CBA.

Answer 26

In the context of public policy, the Rationality Project seeks to improve the quality and effectiveness of policy-making by promoting rational, evidence-based approaches to decision-making. By applying principles of logic, data analysis, and scientific reasoning, policymakers can aim to make choices that are better informed and less prone to common cognitive biases, such as confirmation bias or overconfidence. This approach emphasizes using empirical data, risk assessments, and cost-benefit analyses to evaluate potential policy outcomes systematically, ensuring that policy decisions are aligned with the best available evidence. For example, in public health policy, the Rationality Project’s principles encourage the use of data-driven modeling to anticipate disease spread and evaluate interventions, rather than relying on intuition or political pressures. Similarly, in environmental policy, rational approaches can help assess the long-term costs and benefits of various energy sources, prioritizing actions that yield the greatest positive impact for society. However, while the Rationality Project promotes more objective and transparent policy-making, critics point out that public policy also involves values, ethics, and social considerations that may not fit neatly into a purely rational framework. Issues like equity, cultural differences, and political realities often complicate the application of purely rational approaches. Thus, while the Rationality Project provides valuable tools, a balanced approach that incorporates ethical and social dimensions is crucial for truly effective and inclusive policy-making.

Answer 27

New Public Management (NPM) emerged as a reform movement in the 1980s, significantly shaped by the political ideologies of leaders like UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and US President Ronald Reagan. Rooted in neoliberal principles, NPM aimed to make public administration more efficient, market-oriented, and customer-focused, challenging traditional bureaucratic methods. Thatcher and Reagan promoted NPM reforms as a way to reduce government spending, curb the influence of the state, and introduce private-sector practices into public services. Under Thatcher, NPM reforms involved extensive privatization, outsourcing, and a push toward "value for money" in public spending. Her administration transferred several public services, including utilities and transport, to private companies, aiming to reduce government involvement and increase efficiency. Similarly, Reagan’s administration emphasized deregulation, tax cuts, and downsizing government agencies, promoting competitive outsourcing and performance-based evaluations in public programs. These NPM reforms significantly impacted public sectors in both countries, leading to a more business-like approach in government services. However, they also sparked debates over accountability, equity, and service quality. Critics argue that while NPM improved efficiency in some areas, it sometimes prioritized cost-cutting over public welfare, reduced job security for public sector employees, and introduced profit motives that could undermine public interest in essential services. Despite these critiques, NPM remains influential in public administration globally, particularly in countries pursuing efficiency-driven governance models.

Answer 28

is a governance concept that advocates for decisions to be made at the most localized level capable of effectively addressing an issue, rather than at a centralized authority. In practice, subsidiarity can be seen in the European Union, where national or local governments manage issues like regional development or social policy unless they require broader EU-level intervention. Similarly, federal systems such as the United States or Germany embody subsidiarity by dividing responsibilities across local, state, and national governments.

Answer 29

refer to the legal authority or area within which a particular government, court, or institution has the power to create, enforce, or interpret laws. Jurisdictions define the geographic, subject-matter, or institutional scope of authority, delineating which entities are responsible for governing or regulating different areas. This concept applies at various levels, from local to national to international, and is foundational to organizing governance and legal systems. For example, a city government has jurisdiction over municipal issues such as local policing, zoning, and public utilities, while a national government has jurisdiction over broader issues like defense, immigration, and trade. Courts also have defined jurisdictions, with some handling only federal cases and others dealing with specific types of disputes, such as family law or criminal law. Jurisdictions are essential for maintaining order, as they clarify which authorities are responsible for particular issues, helping to prevent conflicts of authority and enabling efficient governance. However, overlapping or unclear jurisdictions can lead to confusion, conflicts, and inefficiencies, especially in cases involving multiple governing bodies or cross-border issues.

Answer 30

1. Participant governed 2. Lead organisation governed 3. A “Network Administrative Organisation”: external, independent organisation nominated to coordinate

Answer 31

immediate concerns and calls for action run up against the difficulties and costs involved in correcting or altering relevant policy behavior. Government and public attention drifts elsewhere until the issue is again raised to the forefront of public or government attention by some event and/or interest group.

Answer 32

a list of issues to which the public, the media, governmental officials and others in the policy community are saying some serious attention at any given time and that are sometimes acted upon. What is on the agenda is influenced by demographics, political/ economic situation

Answer 33

Inside issue initiation: This stage occurs when policy actors within the government identify and define policy problems, often using their institutional knowledge and resources to shape solutions. Government insiders control the timing and framing of the issue as it moves through policy-making processes. Outside issue initiation: Initiated by external actors like interest groups, the media, or the public, this stage involves pushing an issue onto the government agenda, often using public pressure and advocacy. These actors must have political resources and skills to navigate obstacles and influence government decision-makers. Issue articulation: Policy actors clarify and frame the issue in this stage, often using data and theoretical frameworks to ensure their definitions are valid and persuasive. This framing helps shape the public and government's understanding of the problem, directing the policy discourse. Issue expansion: This stage involves broadening the scope of the issue by gaining wider support, involving more stakeholders, and aligning the issue with other relevant problems. Actors work to increase the salience of the issue, ensuring that it gains more attention across different sectors and actors.: make others care abt ur issue Agenda Entrance: In this final stage, the issue successfully enters the formal government agenda, often facilitated by identifying policy windows. This entrance can be strategic, influenced by timing, political support, and readiness of proposed solutions.

Answer 34

Systemic agenda: all ideas, usually kind of radical, but they are brought all to the table to discuss Institutional agenda: all issues that are currently being considered by a governmental institution= they made their way into decision-making settings Decisions agenda: all issues that are about to be acted upon in a governmental institution

Answer 35

Venue shopping in agenda setting is a strategy used by interest groups, policymakers, or activists to advance their issues by shifting their advocacy to different policy-making arenas or "venues" where they believe they have the best chance of success. Rather than focusing exclusively on a single legislative body or agency, they may present their issues across various levels of government (local, state, national), branches (legislative, executive, judicial), or even within the private sector, media, and public opinion. For example, environmental advocates might "shop" for venues by initially lobbying for climate policy in a state legislature; if unsuccessful, they might turn to federal courts, regulatory agencies, or international bodies, adjusting their approach to the venue's unique decision-making processes. Venue shopping is often used when existing channels are unresponsive or resistant, and it allows advocates to capitalize on differences in jurisdiction, political makeup, or policy priorities across venues.

Answer 36

bottom-up: social mobilization, media-driven top-down: party-driven, state-driven, silent action, international

Answer 37

A policy entrepreneur is an individual or organization that promotes innovative ideas and works to influence the policy agenda by seizing opportunities to advance their preferred policies or reforms. Policy entrepreneurs may be politicians, bureaucrats, activists, academics, or lobbyists who identify issues, build coalitions, and strategically navigate the political landscape to push their ideas forward. They are often proactive in creating alliances, framing issues compellingly, and taking advantage of "policy windows"—moments when political conditions make it easier to introduce change. Policy entrepreneurs are crucial in bringing attention to emerging issues or overlooked problems, as they actively work to shape public opinion, garner media attention, and persuade decision-makers. For example, Rachel Carson, with her book Silent Spring, acted as a policy entrepreneur by raising awareness of environmental dangers, which contributed to policy changes in environmental protection.

Answer 38

- routinized windows: in which routinized procedural events such as budget cycles dictate agenda openings; - discretionary windows: where individual political preference on the part of decision-makers dictates window openings; - random windows: where unforeseen events, such as disasters or scandals, open agenda windows; and - spill-over windows: where related issues are drawn into already opened windows in other sectors or issue areas, such as when railway safety issues arise due to the increased attention paid to airline or automobile safety due to some crisis or accident (Howlett 1998).

Answer 39

Contingent authority refers to power or legitimacy that depends on specific conditions or circumstances rather than being absolute or inherent. Unlike formal authority that is grounded in established roles or titles, contingent authority is often situational and can be granted or withdrawn based on the actions, expertise, or perceived trustworthiness of the authority figure. This type of authority is dynamic, often fluctuating with shifts in public opinion, context, or performance outcomes. In public policy, contingent authority can be observed when experts, leaders, or organizations gain temporary influence during a crisis, like a health emergency or natural disaster, due to their specialized knowledge or ability to respond effectively. For example, during a public health crisis, epidemiologists and health organizations may hold contingent authority as people look to them for guidance. However, this authority can diminish once the situation stabilizes or if the experts fail to meet public expectations.

Answer 40

is shifting the blame of problems to situations where well-intentioned interventions or assistance exacerbate the issues they are meant to solve. This can happen when external support or solutions inadvertently shift responsibility away from the underlying causes of a problem or when they foster dependency, inefficiency, or misalignment with the local context. In policy and governance, this phenomenon often manifests when aid or support is provided without considering the individual's or communities' long-term effects or autonomy. For example, in international aid or humanitarian efforts, donors may focus on providing immediate relief (like food or medical supplies) without addressing the root causes of poverty, inequality, or conflict. This can lead to a situation where the affected community relies on external assistance rather than being empowered to resolve their issues independently. In this case, the "help" may shift the blame away from structural problems like poor governance or economic inequality, allowing governments or institutions to avoid addressing these systemic issues. The "help-is-harmful" concept highlights the importance of ensuring that interventions are not just palliative but address underlying causes and promote self-sufficiency. It challenges the narrative that aid is always beneficial and underscores the potential harm in solutions that focus on quick fixes rather than long-term, sustainable change. This perspective is relevant in development policy, disaster relief, and domestic social welfare programs.

Answer 41

an assertion that a problem once thought to be unintended machine failure (accident) is really a case of intended machine failure (intention).

Answer 42

transforming any given situation into a social problem

Answer 43

a group which is not only the sum of victims but also a social group labelled as a collective and autonomous actor which forms a real social division.

Answer 44

a specific discursive process which enables individuals to give meaning to their actions by situating them in a story, either real of fictitious about bringing back the past or creating a smash future

Answer 45

problems for which there is no clear definition, seen as being unique (its hard to learn), they are symptoms of other problems, their solutions have rly big consequences so u cant rly improvise, problems are not technical they are normative and diff actors are on it for different reasons.

Answer 46

refers to the capacity of individuals or entities to act independently and make their own free choices, often within social, political, or institutional constraints. It highlights the ability to influence decisions, take actions, and shape outcomes, contrasting with being passively controlled by external forces. In public policy and governance, agency is crucial for empowerment, as it enables citizens, organizations, or governments to advocate for their interests and effect change within systems of power.

Answer 47

They may consist of developing something entirely new or useful or, as is more common, employing existing practices, arrangements, or tools in new ways for new uses.

Answer 48

the process of generating a set of plausible policy choices capable of addressing problems identified during agenda setting

Answer 49

a deliberate, systematic approach to policy formulation. Systematic policy design generally occurs when there is clarity or consensus on: * Policy goals * Problem definition * Politically legitimate solutions * Institutional capacity for analysis and design activities * Institutional and political limitations arising from existing priorities, ideals and policy regimes

Answer 50

problem analysis (what/why is it a problem) needs analysis (is this analysis needed?) policy process analysis (is the policy-making process likely effective? What adjustments to institutional structure and agency may be needed?) Policy Theory Analysis (What ‘theory of change’ should underpin policy design? ) Options Analysis (What are our options? What are their strengths and weaknesses? ) Decision Analysis (Which option is best? )

Answer 51

seeks to provide facts

Answer 52

Provide interpretation for the facts achieved

Answer 53

elon musk and donald trump

Answer 54

incentives (carrots), dis-incentives (sticks), information/ communication (sermons), decision-steering through behavioural cues (nudges- cigarette thingy)

Answer 55

nodality: The government is at the centre of social and informational networks authority: the government has legitimate legal power to command and prohibit action treasure: taxpayers' money used to design and implement policy solutions organisation: The government possesses personnel, skill, land, buildings and technology NATO

Answer 56

substantive instruments: effecting instruments: policies that seek to effect direct changes detecting instruments: policies that garner information to help direct change procedural instruments: incentivising/ promoting= positive dis-incentivising/ prohibiting= negative

Answer 57

the constraints of preceding institutional practices and policies on design

Answer 58

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are a research method used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions or policies by randomly assigning participants to either a treatment group (which receives the intervention) or a control group (which does not). This randomization minimizes bias and ensures any observed differences between groups are likely due to the intervention itself. RCTs are widely used in medicine, social policy, and economics, such as testing the impact of cash transfers on poverty alleviation, providing robust evidence for decision-making.

Answer 59

the practice of making only a perfunctory or symbolic effort to do a particular thing, especially by recruiting a small number of people from under-represented groups to give the appearance of sexual or racial equality within a workforce

Answer 60

Have-not citizens refer to individuals or groups within a society who lack access to essential resources, opportunities, or privileges, often due to socio-economic, political, or systemic inequalities. These citizens may experience limited access to education, healthcare, political power, or economic mobility, resulting in a disadvantaged status within the larger society. Addressing the needs of have-not citizens is often a key focus in public policy, aiming to reduce inequality and ensure equitable access to opportunities and rights.

Answer 61

Only incremental changes to existing policy regimes are desirable, necessary or possible

Answer 62

Past failures to update or revise policies leave a legacy that must be accommodated to meet new political/institutional/societal realities

Answer 63

some policies in a policy mix get extended to cover issues, publics or geographic areas they were not originally designed to cover

Answer 64

new policies are added to a policy mix, without removing or adjusting older policies

Answer 65

doing something from scratch to create smth new, usually being stopped by the definition from up

Answer 66

Legislative Bargaining (Compromises between legislators that may be sub-optimal or ineffective) Clientelism (Policies developed to benefit special interest groups in exchange for political support) Promotion for electoral advantage (Policies developed with the specific intent of winning electoral advantage) Bureaucratic politics (Policies developed in ways that ease competition or tension between government departments/organisations leading to poor policy outcomes) Budget maximization (you spend the money so you receive same budget or bigger next year) Leader experiences/preferences (Personal experiences, preferences or ideologies of political leaders)

Answer 67

policymaking occurs but is heavily influenced by political and institutional factors instead of rational design orientation

Answer 68

* Power dynamics often mean that policymakers must compromise or follow ideological priorities instead of seeking comprehensive design (Satisficing) * Complexity of problems and solutions: lead to emergent, unplanned outcomes for which problem definitions and policy options may be difficult to derive, or solutions may be challenging to evaluate in an evidence-based way in time to allow for adequate response * Path dependence: Institutional structures, networks and practices may limit the ability to design clear, coherent policies

Answer 69

Deliberative democracy: focus groups, city assemblies Policy co-production/ participatory democracy: participatory budgeting, citizen juries Digital democracy: consultation, vote trading

Answer 70

The process by which knowledge about policies, administrative arrangements, institutions, or ideas in one political system is used in the development of policies in another system * Transfer may be voluntary or coerced * Transfer is often deliberate, even if involuntary * Transnational governance organisations often promote transfer

Answer 71

copying learning/ adaptation forcing

Answer 72

Policy and Institutional Similarities: Between the borrowing and lending country (e.g., similar political, economic, bureaucratic or cultural contexts). * External Pressure: International agreements, foreign aid conditionality. * Domestic Factors: Political will, civil society pressure, and public opinion. * Networks: The role of think tanks, transnational networks, and global knowledge sharing

Answer 73

policymakers who assume that many problems will take care of themselves, or will never materialize at all, resulting occasionally in high-profile policy disasters and even more frequently in policies that perform far below expectation

Answer 74

Management: the countries have a lack of capacity and resources Enforcement: intentional non-compliance as a result of governmental prerefences. it is intentional as governments fail to comply with EU policies if the perceived benefits exceed the costs of non-compliance Normative: importance of bottom-up pressure, socialisation and learning

Answer 75

is the process of developing initial and intermediate objectives and implementation targets for the interrelated interventions that make up complex policy change initiatives. Tasks need to be linked with specific agencies, and if possible individuals, as well as financial resources; implementation guidelines necessary for the effective interpretation of policies are also typically required.

Answer 76

in the context of public policy refers to the process of incorporating international or supranational rules, such as EU directives, into a country’s domestic legal framework. This ensures that the policies or regulations agreed upon at a higher level are implemented and enforced at the national or local level. Effective transposition is critical for maintaining legal consistency and meeting obligations, but delays or misalignments can lead to disputes, fines, or a lack of policy harmonization.

Answer 77

- refers to the degree to which the centrally decided blueprint is implemented from top to bottom [...]. This top-down school, which dominates Europeanization research, - is primarily interested in comparing the intended and actually achieved outcomes of implementation, where the degree of the goal attainment serves as an indicator for implementation success.

Answer 78

denotes whether a policy achieves outcomes that resolve the original policy problem at stake [...]. This process-oriented bottom-up perspective emphasizes the role of policy implementers as problem-solvers [...]. Hence, it is expected that policy instruments and goals may undergo context-sensitive modifications during the process of policy implementation. [...] Ultimately, effective implementation is measured by the extent to which the perceived outcomes correspond with the preferences of the actors involved in the implementation process

Answer 79

legal outputs do not necessarily translate into practical outputs and outcomes, and comparable data on implementation across different member states and policy sectors is often limited

Answer 80

refers to the process of adapting policies to suit the diverse contexts, needs, or capacities of specific regions, groups, or sectors, rather than applying a one-size-fits-all approach. This method acknowledges variations in resources, priorities, or cultural factors, allowing tailored solutions that enhance the effectiveness and acceptance of policies. It is common in federal systems or international organizations like the EU, where member states or regions have varying levels of autonomy or development.

Answer 81

refers specifically to situations where capable civil servants aid determined governments in following formal EU rules while challenging their substance, designed to create the appearance of norm-conforming behaviour without giving up their original objectives, but it does not mean non-compliance. Customization is the product of complex combinations of factors, but often with the aim of either making EU policies work in practice, adapting them to local circumstances, or regaining control and exercising “opposition through the back door”. Strong shared functional interests can actually lead member states to regulate more ambitiously than the minimal EU rules in surprisingly coordinated ways.

Answer 82

the intensity of domestic actions taken in response to EU law (policy outputs) undertaken by implementers in response to EU policy instruments—relative to the directive’s objectives (vertical aspect) and to other implementers’ outputs (horizontal comparison)— along three dimensions: the substance, scope, and effort of the domestic rules.

Answer 83

are legal actions initiated by a governing body, such as the European Commission, against a member state that fails to comply with its obligations under international or supranational law. These proceedings often address issues like non-compliance with treaties, directives, or regulations. The process typically includes formal notices, opinions, and, if unresolved, referral to a higher court (e.g., the European Court of Justice), potentially resulting in penalties or required corrective actions.

Answer 84

before a policy or program is adopted.

Answer 85

happens after a policy has been implemented, with the aim of determining if and to what extent it has performed as expected. The purpose of the ex-post evaluation is ostensibly to feed into future iterations of policy-making in the form of learning or lessons drawing from experience. But it may also be conducted for many different purposes, including embarrassing opponents for (alleged) policy underperformance or failure.

Answer 86

refers broadly to all the activities carried out by a range of state and societal actors to determine how a policy has fared in practice and estimate how it will likely perform. The evaluation examines the means employed and the objectives served by a policy in practice. The results and recommendations from these evaluations are then fed back into further rounds of policy-making and can lead to the refinement of policy design and implementation or, infrequently, to its complete reform or termination. Value of the policy initiative, the use of specific research methods to produce systematic investigation, and ambition that the evaluation results will be useful.

Answer 87

ensures that what is expected to be measured is actually what is being assessed.

Answer 88

consist of all observed changes in an outcome measure for the policy

Answer 89

those effects that can be directly attributed to the policy

Answer 90

It is the process of comparing internal performance measures and results against those of others involved in similar activities. It is shorthand for a process of surveying other similar organizations and programs in order to assess “best practices” and the standards to use in comparing and assessing the performance of the agency or policy being evaluated. It involves a systematic effort to compare one’s own practices and outputs against others.

Answer 91

1. Social learning involves fundamental shifts in public attitudes and perceptions of social problems and policy issues and involves many different types of actors, both inside and outside of governments and existing policy subsystems 2. Lesson drawing involves a variety of actors inside of existing subsystems who draw lessons from their own experiences and the experiences of others in implementing existing policies. It is significant at the policy formulation stage. It can also appear in carefully designed evaluative efforts if these provide positive or negative exemplars that evaluators can use as benchmarks for evaluative activities. 3. Policy-oriented learning involves clarifying existing goals and policy beliefs based on experiences gained from evaluations of existing policies (Sabatier 1987). It is the most common type of learning to emerge from typical policy evaluation activities. Sabatier: (1) improving one’s understanding of the state of variables defined as important by one‘s belief system (or, secondarily, by competing belief systems); (2) refining one’s understanding of logical and causal relationships internal to a belief system; (3) identifying and responding to challenges to one’s belief system. 4. Government learning involves reviewing policy and program behaviour by existing actors and tends to be means-oriented at best. Its impact and consequences are generally limited to improving the means by which policies are implemented and administered.

Answer 92

links between governmental and nongovernmental organizations. Policymakers should nurture a healthy policy research community outside government because of its potential to enrich public understanding of policy issues and support the policy analytical capacity of the government.

Answer 93

a process through which stakeholders at various levels: * engage in monitoring or evaluating a particular project, program, or policy; * share control over the content, the process, and the results of the activity; and * engage in identifying and taking corrective actions.

Answer 94

people from the local level of government, municipalities who handle the paperwork, and on-site work like public workers, policemen, and teachers. Lipsky says that they are the ones who: - interact with the people regularly - have independence in decision-making - potentially have an extensive impact on users - carry out tasks for which they are trained Their work is affected by: - scarcity of resources - ambiguous (sometimes contradictory: citizens, peers, bosses) role expectations They are placed between the public, their needs, complexity of the society and diversity of situation and the bigger policy goals and government ambitions

Answer 95

- policy as an indeterminate construct that continues to evolve throughout its life cycle - discretionary actions of SLB become the actual policy - discretion is structured by factors that influence SLB's behaviour in systematic ways - policy implementation is politically significant

Answer 96

the extent of freedom SLB can exercise, in a specific context, to choose among possible courses of action or inaction. Discretion is necessary since goals are often unclear or even contradictory, and decisions need to be made. Discretion gives SLB significant power over citizens/ clients.

Answer 97

the role of the public sector staff can play in the wider revitalisation of the public sector, specifically in terms of interacting with service users and communities

Answer 98

their decisions are based on judgements on individual situations (rather than self-interest only), tempered by pragmatism (relationships in addition to rules).

Answer 99

are specific subsets or segments within the larger population that are the primary focus of policy intervention groups whose behaviour is intended to be altered. Target populations are shaped by policymakers' value judgements when justifying their agendas to legislatures and the public Street-level organisations mediate social status and (racial, gender...) identity of target populations

Answer 100

The immediate aim of most public policy is to invoke behavioural change in the ‘targets’ of government intervention.

Answer 101

Policy design are often developd with rudimentary knowledge about how targets are likely to react

Answer 102

* Incentives and sanctions * Monitoring * Resources * Autonomy * Information * Attitude and objectives

Answer 103

refers to situations where individuals do not receive the public services or social benefits to which they are entitled Philippe Warin (2016) lists three types of non-take-up: * non-knowledge, when eligible individuals and households are not aware that certain public services and social benefits exist; * non-demand, when they are aware they exist but choose not to claim/apply for them * non-receipt, when they apply for public services and social benefits but do not receive them.

Answer 104

“the processes through which a public policy is appropriated and co-constructed by the individuals it targets, and through which it produces its effects on them.” Policy reception:  takes the point of view of target populations in their social context  Combines effects and appropriations, which have objective and subjective dimensions

Answer 105

may be public, private (non-profit and for-profit) or mixed (e.g. public-private partnerships). They operate under diverse structural arrangements, including contracting, fee-for-service, vouchers and philanthropic or government grants.

Answer 106

understanding that federal authority alone could not assure that the steps necessary for implementation would occur. Shoulder to shoulder in that ‘black box’ were numerous independent (or at least quasi-independent) actors at various levels of government, each of whose interests, capacities and incentives had a direct bearing on what, if anything, would happen after policies were enacted.

Answer 107

is the act of taking part in the formulation, passage or implementation of public policies. However, political participation takes place at very different levels. Citizens have been divided into ‘apathetics’ (who do not engage in formal politics), ‘spectators’ (who rarely participate beyond voting) and ‘gladiators’ (who fight political battles) (Milbrath and Goel, 1977). Conventional participation comprises a number of ‘modes’, notably voting, party campaigning, communal activity and contacting a representative or official about a particular personal matter.

Answer 108

involves analytical capabilities, such as enhancing “the ability of governments to make intelligent choices”, scanning the environment and setting strategic directions, weighing and assessing the implications of policy alternatives, and making appropriate use of knowledge in policy-making. Others include additional skills and resources such as the acquisition and utilization of policy-relevant knowledge, the ability to frame options, the application of both qualitative and quantitative research methods to policy problems, the effective use of communications, and stakeholder management strategies

Answer 109

show that the designs of public policies can increase or decrease the political participation of individuals beyond what we would predict from their education, income, and other demographic correlates of behavior. Many such studies examine the effects of social welfare programs, although recent work has branched out into additional areas such as civil rights, regulations, and criminal justice.

Answer 110

- politicians, government, institutions - mass public - interest groups

Answer 111

resource effects (where are resources distributed) interpretive effects (how we interpret problems sand olutions and perceive different groups) institutional effects (by creating different institutions, mobilising new state agencies with new routines and practices)

Answer 112

- new governments coming to power - budget cuts - frameworks that countries already have in place

Answer 113

Policy capacity is defined as the set of skills, resources, or competencies and capabilities necessary to perform policy functions. Here, you need skills and resources to: - mobilise and coordinate relevant actors/organisations (operational) - generate, understand and utilize relevant knowledge (analytical) - attract political support, strengthen legitimacy (political) it is on the macro (systemic), meso (institutional), micro (individual)

Answer 114

1. first one is observed through Voter turnout Vote choice, political activity beyond voting (running for office, organising boosting/ public programs), Equalising effects, Behavioural feedback beyond Individual Participation (increased volunteering, community work) 2. Individuals’ attitudes toward political objects arise from preadult socialization; symbolic attachments including partisanship, ideology, and racial sentiment; group attachments; self-interest and material stakes; personal experiences; and elite framing and priming.

Answer 115

refers to political systems or activities characterized by the involvement of large segments of the population, typically through mechanisms like mass political parties, elections, or movements. It emerged prominently in the 19th and 20th centuries with the expansion of suffrage, industrialization, and the rise of communication technologies that allowed broader participation. Mass politics plays a crucial role in shaping democratic governance but can also be influenced by populism, propaganda, or the mobilization of public opinion by elite

Answer 116

Positive attitudinal and participatory effects occur when public policies enhance citizens' trust in government, support for policy programs, and willingness to engage in political activities. For example, welfare policies that visibly improve citizens' lives can increase trust in institutions, reinforce belief in government responsibility, and encourage voter turnout or civic participation. These effects strengthen democratic legitimacy and create self-reinforcing cycles of support for subsequent policymaking. Negative attitudinal and participatory effects arise when policies lead to distrust in government, reduce perceived fairness, or discourage political engagement. For instance, policies perceived as discriminatory or poorly implemented, such as inequitable criminal justice practices, can undermine trust in institutions, alienate marginalized groups, and suppress civic engagement. These effects can contribute to cycles of political disengagement and destabilize democratic governance

Answer 117

- are entwined with accountability processes and lesson drawings that may have winners and losers. - However technocratic and seemingly innocuous, every policy program has multiple stakeholders interested in the outcome of the evaluation: decision-makers, executive agencies, clients, and pressure groups. All of them know that apart from (post‐election) political turnovers or crucial court cases, evaluations are virtually the only moments when existing policy trajectories can be reassessed, and historical path dependencies may be broken - Evaluations hold the promise of a reframing of a program's rationale and objectives, a recalibration of the mix of policy instruments it relies on, a reorganization of its service delivery mechanisms, and, yes, a redistribution of money and other pivotal resources among the various actors involved in its implementation.

Answer 118

with its strong emphasis on value neutrality and objective assessments of policy performance, tries to save evaluation from the pressures of politics by ignoring or somehow superseding them.

Answer 119

sees policy evaluation as a contribution to the informed debate among competing interests and, therefore, explicitly incorporates politics in the ex-post analysis of policy performance.

Answer 120

- Emphasizes separating facts and values to produce apolitical, value-neutral knowledge. - Relies on positivist methods using empirical, scientifically valid data to measure policy efficiency and effectiveness. - Assumes clear policy goals and intersubjective agreement on measurable indicators for evaluation. - Aims to provide unbiased, factual information to policymakers, focusing on cost-benefit analysis and standardized comparisons. - isolates gross outcomes from net outcomes - Criticized for overlooking context and political dynamics, often simplifying complex issues into quantifiable outcomes

Answer 121

- Challenges the separation of facts and values, viewing policy evaluation as inherently normative and value-laden. - Highlights the role of underlying assumptions, politics, and power in shaping evaluation frameworks and findings. - Advocates for policy analysts to engage in debates, uncover presuppositions and mediate between diverse belief systems. - Focuses on consensus-building and the inclusion of marginalized voices in the evaluation process. - Criticized for its relativism, which can make determining the most relevant perspectives or strongest arguments challenging.

Answer 122

Whether the goals were achieved but Goals may be untraceable in policy documents, symbolic rather than substantial, deliberately vaguely worded for political reasons, and contain mutually contradictory components. Goals also often shift during the policy‐making process to such an extent that the original goals bear little relevance for assessing the substance and the rationale of the policy adopted and implemented in the subsequent years.

Answer 123

Refers to how policies and policy makers become represented and evaluated in the political arena. It rightly points at the relevance of the socially and politically constructed nature of assessments about policy success and failure, but it does not offer clear, cogent, and widely accepted evaluation principles and tools for capturing this dimension of policy evaluation.

Answer 124

1. First, public policy analysis suffers from an institutional bias. Michener et al. note a “tendency of mainstream political science to explore the welfare state from the perspective of elite actors and institutions”, a comment generally applies to policy analysis. 2. Secondly, as illustrated by the development of the field of evaluation, the study of policy consequences indeed benefits from a diversity of disciplinary and methodological inputs; in other words, there were indeed good methodological reasons for the development of a specific field to address to this question (among others, since the field of evaluation is not limited to the analysis of policy consequences). 3. Finally, with policy analysis insisting on the increased complexity of governance, involving a diversity of actors and scales and often very fuzzily defined goals, assessing impact was perceived as all the more challenging

Answer 125

the processes through which a public policy is appropriated and co-constructed by the individuals it targets, and through which it produces its effects on them, and thus having direct consequence over future policies Policy Feedback is about the policy’s long-term influence on the political and societal system. Policy Reception is about the immediate public and stakeholder response to the policy when it is introduced or implemented.

Answer 126

the meanings, sources of authority, and cultural practices that are commonly recognized as legal, regardless of who employs them or for what ends” (Ewick and Silbey 1998, p. 22). Legality includes institutionalized legal institutions, texts, and practices, but is not limited to them: “Every time a person interprets some event in terms of legal concepts or terminology – whether to applaud or to criticize, whether to appropriate or to resist – legality is produced”

Answer 127

1. understand the full picture of the social consequence of a policy 2. shift the institutional practices of a policy to the understanding of its targeted population 3. more descriptive research on marginalized groups 4. enrich the analysis of other stages in the policy cycle, of how anticipation of a policy will affect certain decisions that policy- policymakers do

Answer 128

- Private tools often involve minimal government involvement, relying on market, family, or voluntary organizations. - Public tools include direct measures like taxes, regulations, subsidies, state enterprises, and "nudge" strategies. - Hybrid tools combine public and private resources, such as co-design and co-management practices.

Answer 129

involves comparing alternative tools against set objectives to evaluate their effectiveness, costs, and efficiency in addressing identified problems. The primary criterion for evaluation is the option's ability to resolve the problem's root cause, complemented by considerations of efficiency, equity, feasibility, and sustainability.

Answer 130

1. In the sociology of culture, the study of reception combines an analysis of the constraining effects of cultural productions on the receiver with attention to the receiver’s agency. 2. the sociology of law: promoted a radical decentering from legal institutions and professional legal practices, the usual object of the sociology of law, toward the relationship ordinary individuals develop to the legal system and the notion of legality

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