Is Psychology a Science? Flashcards
(31 cards)
What makes science special?
Empirical foundations - based on observations of natural world
The scientific method - use of specific methods of observation
Doing science - follow scientific method to infer theories that explain the behaviour of the natural world
Scientific values - accepted criterion for deciding between theories
What did Descartes say that science should be based on?
‘Certain’ knowledge - derived on basis of precise procedures to justify scientific laws
What is the empiricist view of science?
Scientific knowledge is special because it depends on systematic observation and measurement from which theories follow
Which method did Newton say scientists should use to justify their theories?
Inductive method
Who pointed a problem with using the inductive method and what ws it?
Hume - even if initial statements true - no guarantee that conclusion is true
What did John Stuart Mill propose to solve the problem of induction?
Coherentism:
Doubt should apply to each claim rather than general problem
Quality of inductions depends on how they cohere with current and future inductions
What are Popper’s views of induction?
1934 - no issue of induction:
Make conditional statements which may be true
Identify true conjectures through falsification
Falsification is purely deductive
One contrary observation is sufficient to disconfirm a theory
Problems with falsification
How many disconfirming instances are enough to reject a theory
Problem of theory-dependence of an observation
What does the scientific method assume about facts?
Facts can be known independently from theories
Theories are tested against facts
What is the problem of theory-dependence of observations?
Facts are theoretically constructed - any disconfirmation could be problem of observations not the theoretical claim
Could reject a theory because don’t have evidence at the time
What did Kuhn (1962) say about paradigms?
Science is a network of statements called a paradigm
‘Normal science’ is the development of knowledge within a paradigm
‘Crisis’ occurs when anomalies arise which cannot be explained by the current paradigm
Leads to a paradigm shift or revolution as old paradigm fades away to be replaced by a new paradigm
What did Feyerabudn say about Kuhn’s paradigms?
Solving puzzles is not the main aim of science
Science is the development of overarching, general theories
Science sometimes involves the active, complicit development of rival theories which can challenge and improve current theories
A single paradigm is not necessary - many can co-exist
What did Kuhn and Popper believe about core and auxiliary hypotheses - Worrall 2003?
Kuhn believed that experiments should be designed assuming core ideas so that falsification targets auxiliary hypotheses
Popper believed that experiments should be targeted at core rather than auxiliary hypotheses
How did Kuhn and Popper disagree?
Kuhn: scientists tend to believe the core theory
Popper: scientists know their theories are conjectures
Kuhn: hold core theories as sacred but collapse under weight of evidece built up during puzzle solving period
Popper: scientists attempt to falsify their theories
What is positivism?
Founded by Auguste Comte
A system which confines itself to data of experience - a posteriori
Essentially empiricim taken to its extreme
What did Popper and Kuhn believe about positivism?
Positivist representation of science is naive and does not accurately reflect the conduct of science
What were Lakatos’ criticisms of Popper?
Normative nature of science should be tested to see if its falsifiable
Naive falsificationism - should treat theory as refuted whenever it seems to be contradicted by experience - single instance enough to falsify claim
Falsificationists talk as if just one theory tested but scientists don’t abandon theory until something better comes along
Who combined Popper and Kuhn’s ideas and how?
Lakatos - falsification within research programmes:
Hard core/basic assumptions of the programme and auxiliary hypotheses
Negative heuristic tries to solve problems by directing attention towards auxiliary hypotheses
Positive heuristic directs attention to anomalies that seem to offer solutions that are consistent with the hard core
Falsification of hard core takes place when new theory available
What is post-positivism?
More accurately represents conduct of science than positivism and is ore relective of its historical progression
- Knowledge is reconstructive rather than accumulative - new pieces of info can alter previous ones rather than just add
- Knowledge is not fixed in time
- Different research programmes can have different claims to knowledge
Science cannot establish objective universal truths, although it aims to tend towards them
What are Kuhnian values?
Scientists apply a set of values with which to judge knowledge:
A theory should ‘order phenomena that in its absence would be isolated and confused’
A theory should be internally consistent
A theory should be consistent with other currently accepted theories
The consequences deducible from a theory should agree with current evidence and extend beyond the particular observations, laws or subtheories it was designed to explain
A theory should be fruitful of new research findings
Who is Merton?
A sociologist who reflected on the sociology of science and is most well known for his account of scientific values
What were Merton’s (1973) scientific values?
Universalism - ideas should be evaluated according to impersonal criteria that are universlly agreed within the scientific community
Communalism - knowledge should be regarded as a common heritage and shared freely within the scientific community
Disinterestedness - scientists should not seek to gain for themselves through questionble means or support vested interests
Scepticism - scientists should not be credulous, jump to conclusions, but weigh evidence in a considered manner
Are Scientists Mertonian?
Mitzroff 1974:
- Scientists find ways to restrict what information they consider as relevant by considering ‘well known’ practitioners as more reliable – not universalists
- Scientists promote their own ideas to their own advantage – not disinterested
Mulkay 1976:
- Scientists adopt practices that defend their independence and relative freedom from external scrutiny – not communal/sceptic
Variability in Applying Scientific Values
Mulkay & Gilbert 1984:
- Scientists often depict theory choice as individual to themselves and not by some accepted values
- Scientists do not always agree what a particular experiment actually means
Gilbert & Mulkay 1982:
- Advocates of particular theories recurrently claimed that their beliefs were supported by the evidence whilst others’ conclusions were impaired by psychological or cultural distortions
