Issue And Debates

Question 1

What’s is gender bias

What is alpha bias

What is beta bias

What is universality

Answer 1

Is when researchers or theories may offer a view the does not justifiably represent the experience or behaviour of men or women

Alpha bias says there are real and enduring differences between men and women
. The consequence is that theories devalue gender in comparison to the other

Beta bias refers to theories that ignore or minimise gender differences. Such theories tend either to ignore questions about the lives of women, or assume that insights derived from studies of Kent will apply equally well to women

The aim to develop theories that apply to all people, which may include real differences.

Question 2

What is Androcentrism

Alpha bias frued research

Beta bias research

Answer 2

When theories are centred or focused on men, often to the neglect or exclusion of women

His alpha bias theory of psychoanalysis Freud viewed femininity as failed masculinity he exaggerated the difference between men and women.

Flight or flight is a good example as biological research is usually conducted with make animals because in females the variation in hormone levels would make it more difficult. Using male sample was assumed what is true for males is also true for females

Question 3

Evaluation point
Point: gender bias in theory and studies because the methods used are biased
Explain this

Answer 3

Rosthenal found that male experimenters are more pleasant, friendly and encouraging to female participants than to male participants. This meant that males perform worse than females when given task.

Question 4

Evaluate
Why can beta bias be an disadvantage
P
E
E

Answer 4

Because arguing for equality between men and women draws attention away from women special needs.

For example equal parenting ingnores the biological demands of pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding and special needs of a women, therefore disadvantaging women.

Avoid beta bias to ensure that significant differences are taken care of.

Question 5

What is cultural alpha bias and example

What is cultural beta bias

Answer 5

Refers to theories that assume there are real and enduring differences between cultural groups. The distinction that is often made between individualist and collective cultures. As we would expect individualist cultures to be less conformist.

Refers to theories that infinite or minimise cultural differences they do this by assuming all people are the same and therefore is reasonable to use the same theories with all cultural groups

Question 6

What is ethnocentrism

Examples of alpha and beta bias

Answer 6

This is the use of our own ethnic or cultural group as a basis for judgements about other groups.

Example of alpha bias because one’s own culture is considered to be different and better, and the consequences of this is that other cultures and their practices are devalued.

If psychologist believe there world view is the only view.

Question 7

What is culture relativism

Answer 7

The view that behaviour cannot be judged properly unless it is is viewed in the context of the culture it originates

Question 8

Evaluation

How to counter ethnocentrism

Answer 8

Encourage indigenous this is the development of different groups of
theories in different countries.

For example Afrocentrism is a
movement whose central proposition is that all back people have their roots in Africa and that psychologist theories concerning such people must therefore be African centred and express African values.

This has led to development of theories relevance to the life and culture of people of African descent.

Question 9

Evaluation

Consequences of cultural bias

Answer 9

Creates and reinforces stereotypes

An infamous example of the damage done by psychologist through cultural bias was the US army iq test. The test showed that European immigrants fell slightly below white Americans in terms of IQ and African Americans were at the bottom. This cause damage

Question 10

Evaluation

How can ethnocentrism be reduced

Answer 10

Increase travel over the past 50 years of psychologist means they have increased understanding of other cultures at a personal level but also at a professional level.
This means there much greater exchange of ideas, which should reduce ethnocentrism in psychology.

Question 11

What is determinism

Hard determinism

Soft determinism

Answer 11

Behaviour is controlled by external or internal forces. Meaning behaviour is predictable

The view that all behaviour can be predicted and there is no free will

A version of determinism that allows for some element of free will

Question 12

Biological determinism

Environmental determinism

Psychic determinism

Scientific determinism

Answer 12

Behaviour determined by our genes
Neuronetransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine

Behaviourist believe that all behaviour is caused by previous experience through a process of classical and operant conditioning.

Freud psychoanalytic theory of personality suggest that adult behaviour is determined by a mix of innate drives and early experiences.

Scientific research is based on the belief that all events have a cause.

Question 13

What is free will

Answer 13

Each individual has the power to make choices about their behaviour.

Question 14

Evaluation
A problem with both genetic and environmental determinism?

Answer 14

Neither can be the sole determining factor in behaviour

For example studies that compare identical twins found that 80% similarities on intelligence. So there’s 80% chance that the other twin will also
have a high IQ

Therefore genes do not entirely determine behaviour. But equally the environment doesn’t entirely determine behaviour

Question 15

Evaluation
Point is criminal cases in the US claim that their behaviour was determined by inherited genes and therefore they shouldn’t be punished.

Answer 15

Stephen Mobley who killed a pizza shop manerger in 1981 claimed this happened because he was born to kill as record of family history of violence. The argument was rejected and Mobley was sentenced to death.
Therefore a deterministic position may be under Isabel because it would all individuals to exclude their behaviour and also restrict options for the treatment of mental disorders

Question 16

Evaluation
Free will is an illusion
Explain

Answer 16

Skinner point was that a person might choose to buy a particular car or see a particular film but in fact these choices are determined by previous reinforcement experiences

Question 17

What is nature

What is nurture

Interactionist approach

Nature and nurture debate

Answer 17

Behaviour that’s of innate biological factors

Behaviour is product of environmental influences

The view that the process of nature and nurture work together rather than in opposition.

The argument as whether a person development is Mainly due to their genes or to environmental influences.

Question 18

Examples of the influence of nature

Examples of the influence of nurture

Answer 18

Family, twin and adaptation studies show the closer that the two individuals are genetically, the more likely that both of them will develop behaviour.

Behaviourist suggests that attachment could be explained in terms of classical or operant

Question 19

Evaluation
Nature and nurture cannot be separated

Answer 19

Donald herb arguing trying to do this was the same as asking wherever the length or width of a rectangle was more important then working of a rectangle. A disorder that can be cured through environmental manipulation raises the question to nature or nurture ? This highlights the importance of an interactionist approach.

Question 20

Evaluation
Nurture affect nature

Answer 20

Plasticity taught how life experiences shape your biology
For example study of London taxi drivers showed that the region of their brains associated with spatial memory was bigger than in controls.the taxi drivers were not born this way rather their hippocampus had responded to increase use

Question 21

Evaluation
Nature affects nurture

Answer 21

For example a child who is genetically more aggressive might provoke an aggressive response in others. This response becomes part of the child environment and affects the child development this is called reactive gene -environment interaction because the child is reacting to genetically influenced behaviour

Question 22

What is reductionism

Levels of reductionism

Answer 22

Involves breaking a complex phenomenon down into more simple components

Highest level: cultural and social explanations of how social groups affect our behaviour
Middle level: psychological explanations of behaviour
Lower level: biological explanations of how hormones and gene’s affect behaviour

Question 23

What’s is holism

Example of holism

Answer 23

This approach focuses on system as a whole rather than on constituent parts.

Humanist psychology believe that the individual reacts as an organised whole, rather than a set of stimuli’s-response links. What matters most is a persons sense of united identity or a lack of identity or a sense of wholeness leads to mental disorder

Question 24

Evaluation
A strength of biological explanation has been the development of the drug therapies. Explain

Answer 24

Such treatment have led to considerable reduction in institutionalisation since the 1950s. On the other hand drug therapies are not always successful and reducing mental illness to the biological level ignores the context and function of such behaviour.

While drug therapies have a role to play treating symptoms, psychological explanations take more account of causal factors and have produced more successful therapies.

Question 25

Evaluation
A limitation of the behavioural approach is that it was developed using experiments with non human animals

Answer 25

While it may be appropriate to explain non-human animals behaviour in terms of simple components, such explanation may not be appropriate for more complex human behaviour.

Question 26

Idographic approach

Nomothetic approach

Answer 26

Involves the study of individuals and the unique insights each individual gives us about human. It is qualitative because the focus is on gaining into human behaviour by studying unique individuals in depth rather than gaining numerical data from many individuals and determining average characteristics.

The nomothetic approach involves the study of a large of number of people and then seek to make generalisation or develop theories about their behaviour.

Question 27

Example of idiographic approach

Example of Nomothetic approach

Answer 27

Humanistic psychologists also favour idiographic approach as they are concerned with studying the whole person and seeing the world from the
perspective of that person.

The biological approach seeks to portray the basic principles of how the body and brain work. As seen before this approach has sometimes mistakenly just studied men and assumed that the process would occur in women

Question 28

Evaluation
A strength of the idiographic approach is its focus on the individual

Answer 28

Humanistic psychologists and qualitative psychologists in the latter half of the last century felt that there was too much emphasis on measurement and that psychologist had lost sight of what it was too be human. Allport argued that it is only knowing the person as an individual that we can predict what person will do in any situation.

Question 29

Evaluation
A limitation of the idiographic approach is that it is too time consuming

Answer 29

Both approaches are based on large amounts of data, but one in term of collecting large amounts of data about one person and the others is in terms of number of people. Collecting large amounts of data from a group of people takes time but relatively speaking is quicker because once you have devised a questionnaire or psychological test data can be generated and processed quickly

Question 30

Socially sensitive research

Answer 30

Refers to studies in which there are potential social consequences or implications ether directly for the participants in research.

Question 31

The research process

The research question

Conduct of research and treatment of participants

The institutional context

Interpretation and application of findings

Answer 31

Simply asking a research question may be damaging to members of a particular racial group or sexual orientation

The main concern is the confidentiality of the information collected

Researcher may be funded and managed be private institutions who may misuse the data or may misunderstand the data that is produced

Researchers finding may be used for purposes other than originally intended.

Question 32

Ethical research in socially sensitive research

Privacy
Confidentiality
Valid methodology
Deception

Answer 32

During research process a skilled investigator may extract more information from participants than intended to give

Participants may be less willing to divulge information in the future if confidentiality is breached.

In cases of poor methodology scientist may be aware of these problems, but the media and the public may not and thus poor studies might shape important social policy to the detriment of those groups represented by the research.

Includes self deception whereby research may lead people to form untrue stereotypes which then affect one’s own performance.

Question 33

One solution to the problem of handling socially sensitive research is to avoid it altogether. The argument in favour of doing this is that the findings may have negative ___________ for the participants, for the section of society they represent or for the whole of society. However this would probably leave psychologists with nothing to __________ but unimportant issues. sober and Stanley argue that ignoring sensitive research is not responsible approach to science and avoiding ________ topics simply because they are controversial is also and avoidance of responsibility.

Answer 33

One solution to the problem of handling socially sensitive research is to avoid it altogether. The argument in favour of doing this is that the findings may have negative consequences for the participants, for the section of society they represent or for the whole of society. However this would probably leave psychologists with nothing to examine but unimportant issues.sober and Stanley argue that ignoring sensitive research is not responsible approach to science and avoiding controversial topics simply because they are controversial is also and avoidance of responsibility.