Relationships

Question 1

Theory of sexual selection

Intrasexual

Answer 1

This theory explains the evolution of characteristics that confer a reproductive advantage as opposed to a survival advantage.

In intrasexual selection individuals of one sex must outcompete other members of their sex in order to gain access to members of the other sex
Meaning able to pass on the genes
Whatever characteristics lead to success become more widespread

Question 2

Intersexual selection

Sexual selection and long term mate preferences

Answer 2

In intersexual selection members of one sex evolve preferences for desirable qualities in potential mates. The preferences of one sex therefore determine the area in which the other sets must compete.

People are choosy as the genetic quality of their mate will determine half of there offspring’s. For females this means being attracted to males who are able to invest resources in her and her children and is physically able to protect her and her children

Question 3

Evaluation
Bernstein points out that gender differences in mate preference’s pattern might stem from cultural traditions rather than Being the result of evolved characteristics.

Answer 3

For example the fact that women have. been denied economic and political power in Many cultures might account for their tendency to rely on the security and economic resources provided by men .

We shouldn’t underestimate the role of social and economic factors in establishing mate preferences

Question 4

Evaluation
Claims that evolutionary psychologists are mistaken in their claims of a universal female preference for high status as mates

Answer 4

He argues that the majority of studies to determine female mate preferences have been carried out on female undergraduates student. These women expect to achieve high educational status and so have expectation of high income levels. The fact that these women prefer high status men might be explained by a general preference for high status men or it may be better explained in terms of a preference for men with similar interests, education and prospects to their own.

Question 5

The matching hypothesis

Answer 5

The matching hypothesis claims that, when initiating romantic relationships, individuals seek out partners whose social desirability approximately equals their own.
According to this view, when choosing a partner individuals must first assess their own value in the eyes of a potential romantic partner and then select the best available candidates who would be most likely to be attracted to them.

Question 6

Matching and physical attractiveness

Answer 6

Although the matching hypothesis initially proposed that people would pair up with someone as social desirable as themselves in terms of a wide range of assets over time it has to be associated specifically with matching in physical attractiveness alone

Question 7

Evaluation
People come to a relationship offering many desirable characteristics, of which physical attractiveness is only one.

Answer 7

A person may compensate for a lack of physical attractiveness with other desirable qualities such as a charming personality, kindness, status money and so o. Sprecher and Hatfield refer to this tendency to compensate for a lack of physical attractiveness by offering other desirable traits

Question 8

Evaluation
Matching may not be that important in initial attraction

Answer 8

In a study of online dating patterns, they found no evidence that dates decisions were driven by a similarity between their own and potential partners physical attractiveness. Instead they found evidence of an overall preference for attractive partners.

Question 9

Self disclosure

Research on self disclosure

Answer 9

It refers to the extent to which a person reveal personal information about thermal- their intimate thought feelings and experiences to another person.

Research show that the level of self disclosure received in romantic relationships was a better predictor of liking and loving than the level of self disclosure that is given. Research also found that self disclosure was positively related to relationship stability.

Question 10

Different types of self disclosure

Norms of self disclosure

Answer 10

For example disclosing one’s taste in music and disclosing one’s inner fears and fantasies are quite different. It is not self disclosure that predicts satisfaction but the type of self disclosure.

There are norm about self disclosure for example there is the norm that people should engage in only a moderately personal level of self disclosure in the early stages of a relationship.

Question 11

Evaluation
They found research support for the importance of self disclosure.

Answer 11

They found that people who engage in intimate disclosure tend to be liked more than people who disclose at lower levels, and people like other as a result of having disclosed to them. The relationship between disclosure and liking was stronger if the recipient believed that the disclosure was shared only with them rather than being shared indiscriminately with others.

Question 12

Evaluation
Some research have suggested that relationships formed over the internet involve higher levels of self-disclosure and attraction than in face to face relationship.

Answer 12

Because individuals communicating over the internet are often anonymous, this may lead them to reveal more information about themselves. Cooper and sportolari refer to this as the boom and bust phenomenon. When people reveal more about themselves earlier than they would in a face to face interaction relationship get very intense very quickly( boom). However because the underlying trust and true knowledge of the other person are not there to support the relationship, it becomes difficult to sustain(bust)

Question 13

Filter theory

Social demography

Answer 13

We choose romantic partners by using a series of filters that narrow down the field of availables from which we might eventually make our choice.

Refers to variables such as as age social background and geographical location, which determine the likelihood of individuals meeting in the first place.

Question 14

Similarity in attitude

Complementary of needs

Answer 14

Kerchoff and Davis that similarity in attitudes and values was of central importance at the start of a relationship and was the best predictor of the relationship being stable.

People who have different needs like each other because they provide each other with mutual satisfaction of these opposed needs. This is important because finding a partner who complements them ensures that their own needs are likely to be met

Question 15

Evaluation
Duck suggest that the filtering process is important because it allows people to make predictions about their future interaction and so avoid investing in a relationship that won’t work

Answer 15

Each person conduct a series of explorations, disclosing bits of information about themselves and making enquiries about the other person . Based on these exchanges partners may decide to continue with a relationship or make a decision that it will not work and so end the relationship before becoming too deeply involved with the other person.

Question 16

Kerchoff and David filter theory assumes that relationships progress when partners discover shared attitudes and values with their partners and the possessions of needs that complement their own. However this may no longer be the case

Answer 16

For example Thornton and young DeMarcro found evidence of changed attitudes towards relationships in young American adults over a period of a few decades. This includes a weakening of the normative Imperative to marry, attitudes towards mothers working outside the home more egalitarian attitudes towards gender roles in marriage

Question 17

Social exchange theory
Profit and loss

Answer 17

Social exchange is the assumption that all social behaviour is a series of exchanges individuals aim to maximise their rewards and minimise their costs.

Question 18

Comparison level

Comparison level for alternatives

Answer 18

Our comparison level is a product of our experiences in other relationships together with our general views of what we expect from this particular exchange

This is where a person weighs up a potential increase in rewards from a different partner, minus the cost associated with ending the current relationship. A new relationship can take the place of the current one if it’s anticipated profit level is significantly higher.

Question 19

Evaluation
A problem for social exchange theory is the confusion of what constitutes a cost and a benefit within a relationship

Answer 19

What might be considered rewarding to one person may be punishing to another. In addition what might be seen as a benefit at one stage of the relationship may be seen as a cost at another juncture as partners may redefine something they previously perceived as rewarding or punishing.

Question 20

Evaluation
Sprecher in a longitudinal study of 101 dating couples at a Us university, found that the exchange variables most highly associated with relationship commitment was partners comparison level for alternatives.

Answer 20

The study shows that when comparison level for alternatives was high, commitment level to and satisfaction with, the current relationship tended to be low. This was the case for both males and females

Question 21

Equity theory

Answer 21

Equity theory claims people are most comfortable when what they get out of a relationship is roughly equal to what they put in

Relationship that lack equity are associated with distinct types of dissatisfaction. If people feel over benefited they may experience pity, guilt and shame if under benefited they may experience anger sadness and resentment.

Question 22

Equity and inequity in marriages

Answer 22

Schafer and Keith surveyed hundred of married couples of all ages, noting those who felt their marriages were inequitable because of an unfair division of domestic responsibilities. During child rearing years, wives often reported feeling under benefited and husbands over benefited

Question 23

Evaluation
De Maria points out that men and women are not equally affected by inequity in romantic relationship.

Answer 23

Women tend to perceive themselves as more under benefited compared to men and are also more disturbed by being under benefited that are men. Demerits suggest that main reason for this is that womens relationship focus may make them more sensitive to injustices and inequity.

Question 24

Evaluation
Although research has established that inequity and dissatisfaction are linked, the nature of the casual relation itself is not clear

Answer 24

For example Clark argues that in most relationships couples do not think in term of rewards and equity. If they do, she claims it is sign that their marriages are in trouble l. According to this perspective dissatisfaction with a relationship is the cause not the consequences of inequity.

Question 25

Rusbults investment model

Answer 25

An explanation of relationship stability that emphasises the importance of three factors ( satisfaction, investment size and quality of alternatives) in determining relationship commitment which in turn predicts relationship stability

Question 26

Satisfaction

Quality of alternatives

Answer 26

Satisfaction level refers to the positive versus negative emotions experienced within a relationship and is influenced by the extent to which the other person fulfills the individual most important needs.

Quality of alternatives referred to the extent to which an individual most important needs might be better fulfilled outside current relationship.

Question 27

Investment size

Commitment level

Answer 27

Investment size is a measure of all the resources that are attached to the relationship and such would diminish in value or be lost completely if the relationship were to end.

Commitment is the likelihood that an involmen will persist. Commitment is high in a relationship when people are satisfied with their relationship feel tied to it because of investment or have no suitable alternatives

Question 28

Evaluation
A problem for the investment model is that it is difficult to measure commitment and other variables that lead to commitment in the relationship.

Answer 28

Rusbult developed the investment model scale to overcome this problem. They found this scale to be high in both reliability and validity in the measurement of these variables and suitable for a wide variety of different populations.

How a potential problem is that the scale relies on self report measures which often have problems with respondents wishing to present themselves in a good light

Question 29

Virtual relationships
Are relationships that are conducted through the internet rather than face, to _______ for example through social media.

People self disclose more on the the internet than face to _____ relationships because of the anonymity. People don’t self disclose with each other until they are confident that what they disclose remains ____________ , and would not be leaked. The anonymity of internet allows people to share there thoughts and feelings with much less ________ of disappointment.

Answer 29

Virtual relationships
Are relationships that are conducted through the internet rather than face, to face for example through social media.

People self disclose more on the the internet than face to face relationships because of the anonymity. People don’t self disclose with each other until they are confident that what they disclose remains confidential, and would not be leaked. The anonymity of internet allows people to share there thoughts and feelings with much less fear of disappointment.

Question 30

Gating in face to face relationships
In face to face relationships, personal factors such as ________ appearance and mannerisms tend to determine whom we approach, and whom we develop romantic relationships with. In online relationships there is an _________ of theses barriers or gates that normally limit the opportunities for the less ?________, shy, or less socially skilled to form relationships in face to face encounters. A consequence of absence of gating is that a person true self is more likely to to be _________ in internet relationships than it is in face to face interactions.
A reduction of gating obstacles in the online environment also enables people to stretch the _______ a bit further to project a self that is more socially desirable than their real offline identity.

Answer 30

Gating in face to face relationships
In face to face relationships, personal factors such as physical appearance and mannerisms tend to determine whom we approach, and whom we develop romantic relationships with. In online relationships there is an absence of theses barriers or gates that normally limit the opportunities for the less attractive, shy, or less socially skilled to form relationships in face to face encounters. A consequence of absence of gating is that a person true self is more likely to to be active in internet relationships than it is in face to face interactions.
A reduction of gating obstacles in the online environment also enables people to stretch the truth a bit further to project a self that is more socially desirable than their real offline identity.

Question 31

Tamir and Michell found evidence of a biological basis for the motivation to self disclose on social media. They found increased _______ activity in two brain regions that are associated with reward, the nucleus __________ and ventral tegmental area. These areas were strongly activated when people were talking about ___________ and less so when they were talking about someone else.

Answer 31

Tamir and Michell found evidence of a biological basis for the motivation to self disclose on social media. They found increased MRI activity in two brain regions that are associated with reward, the nucleus acucmbens and ventral tegmental area. These areas were strongly activated when people were talking about themselves and less so when they were talking about someone else.

Question 32

Barker and Oswald argue that shy individuals find particular value in virtual relationships.
Baker and Oswald surveyed 2017 male and female students about their shyness, Facebook usage and the quality of their friendships. For students who scored high for shyness, greater use of Facebook was _____________ with higher perception of friendship quality.In contrast, for those who scored _____ for shyness, Facebook usage was not associated with perception of friendship quality.

Answer 32

Barker and Oswald argue that shy individuals find particular value in virtual relationships.
Baker and Oswald surveyed 2017 male and female students about their shyness, Facebook usage and the quality of their friendships. For students who scored high for shyness, greater use of Facebook was associated with higher perception of friendship quality.In contrast, for those who scored low for shyness, Facebook usage was not associated with perception of friendship quality.