Issues and Debates

Question 1

What are the features of free will?

Answer 1

• People play active role + consciously make choices about behaviour/thought
• Self-determining, active agents: responsible for behaviour independent of internal/external influences
• Free from causal influences of past events: impossible to predict behaviour (not compatible with science)
• Instead, psychology should study subjective experiences, not general laws
• Teleology (do something for a purpose)

Question 2

What is an example of an approach which uses free will?

Answer 2

Humanistic approach: freedom necessary to achieve self-actualisation

Question 3

What are the features of hard determinism?

Answer 3

• Free will is an illusion so behaviour/thoughts outside control
• Internal/external influences govern/control us
• Behaviour is predictable (compatible with science)
• Aetiology (explains causes)

Question 4

What are the features of soft determinism?

Answer 4

• Behaviour/thoughts are to an extent governed by internal/external factors, but people still have some element of control
• Behaviour is predictable but not inevitable

Question 5

What is an example of an approach which uses soft determinism?

Answer 5

Cognitive approach: We choose our own behaviours/thoughts, but these choices only operate within limits of our knowledge/ experiences (schema)

Question 6

What are the 3 types of determinism?

Answer 6

Biological determinism
Environmental determinism
Psychic determinism

Question 7

What is biological determinism?

Answer 7

Emphasises role of biological factors in controlling behaviour/ thoughts (biological approach)
- genes -> SERT in OCD
- neurochemistry -> high dopamine (attention + movement) in OCD
- brain structure -> caudate nucleus in OCD
- brain function -> autonomic NS in anxiety or stress

Question 8

What is environmental determinism?

Answer 8

All behaviours controlled through conditioning; our experience of choice is the sum of reinforcement through life (behaviourist approach)
Skinner- free will is ‘an illusion’
Phobias acquired via classical and maintained via operant

Question 9

What is ‘double’ determinism?

Answer 9

Interactions of biology (genotype) and environment (phenotype)

Question 10

What is psychic determinism?

Answer 10

Behaviour controlled by unconscious conflicts repressed in childhood (psychodynamic approach)
- psychodynamic stages of development & fixations
- ‘slip of the tongue’ explained by influence of unconscious

Question 11

What are 2 positive implications of taking a free will approach? (over determinism)

Answer 11

Important implications for mental health
- general laws underestimate the uniqueness of humans
- conscious reflection on own actions is seen as best way of achieving goals + learning from mistakes
- adolescents with strong degree of fatalism (external locus of control) = higher risk of depression
Believing + acknowledging free will has + impact on self

Consistent with society’s ideas of responsibility + self-control
- in law, offenders held responsible for their actions
- Mobley 1981 ‘born to kill’ due to family disposition: US court rejected argument
- hard determinism excuses behaviour, free will does not
Free will argument important in social and legal sense

Question 12

What are 2 positive implications of taking a determinist approach? (over free will)

Answer 12

Helps establish psychology as a science
- looks for causes of behaviour (although unfalsifiable)
- general laws developed, meaning behaviour can be predicted -> RW application (eg: SSRIs)
Places psychology with established sciences so explanations for behaviour more valid + trusted, effective RW application in treatment

Can explain behaviour that undermines free will
- sz and OCD loss control over thoughts and behaviour
- people with disorders don’t consciously choose delusions/obsessions/ compulsions
- true as meds (eg: antipsychotics) alleviate symptoms
For mental illness, behaviour determined, gives patients certainty disorder not to own choosing

Question 13

Why is the interactionist approach better than just free will or determinism?

Answer 13

Interactionist approach is best
- cognitive approach adopts soft determinism to explain behaviour
- we are ‘choosers’ of our own behaviour, but these choices are limited by what is known (schema determined by past experiences)
- CBT works by changing automatic, negative thoughts to more rational (can alleviate depression)
- SLT reciprocal determinism: environment influences you, and you influence environment around you, both impact each other via behaviours chosen to be performed
Human behaviour better explained + treated when considering the value of both free will and determinism

Question 14

What are causal explanations?

Answer 14

Based on the scientific notion that behaviour is determined by internal and/or external factors (there is a cause-and-effect relationship)

Question 15

What are the basic principles of science?

Answer 15

All events have a cause: the cause can be tested using empirical methods (experiments)
IV manipulated + EVs controlled + DV objectively measured to establish causal relationship
Causes of behaviour then explained using general laws/theories
Formulation of laws allows for prediction + control (prevention/treatment) of behaviour

Question 16

Is psychology a science?

Answer 16

For most approaches, psychology is a science (uses OTHER), some more deterministic than others (hard vs soft)

For the humanistic approach… scientific method not appropriate for studying complex human consciousness/experience
Humans are subjective in thinking/behaving due to free will
Free will inconsistent with aims of science

Question 17

What 2 words are linked with free will/determinism debate?

Answer 17

Predictable / unpredictable
Inevitable / not inevitable

Question 18

What is the motto of the holistic approach?

Answer 18

Whole > than the sum of the parts

Question 19

What does the holistic approach suggest?

Answer 19

Human behaviour considered as a whole, integrated, indivisible experience
-> Behaviour is complex and whole system cannot be understood from just knowing individual components

Emergent properties arise from collaborative functioning of system, but doesn’t belong to any one part, only when system works as a whole

Question 20

Give an example of an emergent property in psychology

Answer 20

Human consciousness is an emergent property of brain, not down to single neuron, but interconnections of neurons in nervous system generates complex human emotions eg: fear

Question 21

Which approaches use holism?

Answer 21

Humanistic
Social psychology

Question 22

What is the motto of the reductionist approach?

Answer 22

System = sum of parts

Question 23

What is the scientific principle that underlines the reductionist approach?

Answer 23

Parsimony

Complex phenomena should be explained in simplest terms possible as less assumptions are made -> explanation more likely

Human behaviour should + can be understood by breaking systems down into smaller component parts

Question 24

What are the 2 types of reductionism? Are they compatible with science?

Answer 24

Biological reductionism
Environmental reductionism

Both compatible with science as behaviour tested empirically and measured objectively

Question 25

What is biological reductionism?

Answer 25

We are biological organisms, so behaviour reduced to physical/ biological level, explained through neurochemistry/ physiology/ genes/ evolution

Question 26

Give an example of biological reductionism

Answer 26

Schizophrenia from dysfunctional levels of serotonin

Question 27

What is environmental reductionism?

Answer 27

Complex behaviours reduced to series of S-R chains that come about through conditioning

Question 28

Give an example of environmental reductionism

Answer 28

Phobias acquired via classical conditioning, maintained via operant conditioning

Question 29

What does levels of explanation mean?

Answer 29

Which level is appropriate to explain human behaviour

Question 30

What are the 3 levels of explanation with examples from schizophrenia?

Answer 30

Question 31

What are 2 strengths of holism?

Answer 31

Some behaviours only understood at higher level - due to some behaviours only emerging in group context, cannot be understood at individual level of group members - eg: Stanford prison experiment not understood by observing participants as individuals, as all had satisfactory health checks - was understood by interaction between people and the group - quality of feelings only understood from subjective interpretation - eg: thinking about colour blue/red involved same region in brain, but feelings experienced are different -> not explained by reductionist Higher level analysis useful as provides more valid account of subjective human behaviour Doesn’t oversimplify behaviours - removing social context may result in inaccurate conclusions about the behaviour as social context often important in understanding intention behind the behaviour - eg: pointing a finger follows same physiological pattern regardless of intention, but social context allows understanding of why eg: drawing attention, aggression Holism can fully explain behaviour, not just part of explanation

Question 32

What are 2 strengths of reductionism?

Answer 32

Has more widespread practical value - holism suggests that eg: depression caused by many factors -> hard to know which is most influential, and thus which to prioritise for therapy - but by breaking disorders down, can empirically test effectiveness of drug therapy (SSRIs) By identifying most influential cause of behaviour, reductionism can provide treatments that are more useful to a wider range of people Scientific basis to research - focus on empiricism and objectivity - to test hypothesis, behaviour broken down into parts, allows for operationalisation of variables - can establish causal relationships - eg: Strange situation operationalised component behaviours such as separation anxiety Reductionist approach increases credibility of psychology as a science

Question 33

Why is the interactionist approach better than just holism or just reductionism?

Answer 33

Considers how several levels of explanation interact to explain a behaviour - eg: MAOA-L variant and abusive childhood → aggression By considering interaction of dif levels, more effective treatments/interventions offered

Question 34

What does the nature-nuture debate look at?

Answer 34

As behaviour lies on a continuum between nature and nurture, both necessary to explain behaviour Looks at relative contribution of nature/nurture on a particular behaviour

Question 35

Outline the nature argument

Answer 35

Based on nativism: all human characteristics are hereditary

Question 36

Which approach is PRIMARILY nature?

Answer 36

Biological approach Behaviour + thinking is result of innate biological systems -> although does consider environmental influences (phenotype)

Question 37

Outline the nurture argument

Answer 37

Based on empiricism, mind is a blank slate and behaviour is result of environmental learning Dif levels of the environment -> pre-natal (eg smoking, music) post-natal (eg social conditions)

Question 38

Which approach is STRICTLY nurture?

Answer 38

Behaviourist Behaviour + thinking shaped through learning

Question 39

Which 3 approaches take an interactionist approach (diathesis stress model) in understanding how nature and nurture shape behaviour?

Answer 39

Cognitive: we share same means of cognitive processing BUT shaped through experience Psychodynamic: behaviour driven by unconscious drives and conflicts to deal with BUT defence mechanisms product of upbringing Humanistic: innate drive to self-actualise BUT problems in achieving it arises from experiences and upbringing (conditions of worth)

Question 40

What is epigenetics?

Answer 40

Change in genetic activity without change to gene: caused by interaction of genes and environment

Question 41

How does epigenetics change genetic activity and expression?

Answer 41

Events (eg: smoking) leaves ‘marks’ on DNA, switching genes on/off Explains why smoking has a lifelong influence as changes way genes expressed

Question 42

As epigenetics influence the genetic codes of future generations, what does this mean for the NN debate?

Answer 42

Adds third element to debate (life experience of previous generations)

Question 43

How can the relative contribution of nature/nurture be measured?

Answer 43

Concordance rates Correlation coefficient 0.01 → genes contribute almost nothing to individual differences Correlation coefficient 1.0 → genes are the only reason for individual differences

Question 44

As IQ has a correlation coefficient of 0.5, what does this mean?

Answer 44

Intelligence is half genes, half environment

Question 45

What is a strength of the nature nurture debate?

Answer 45

Both have real world applications - depression linked to serotonin -> SSRIs developed to increase serotonin stimulating post-synaptic neuron - phobias learnt from environment fear response -> systematic desensitisation using counterconditioning Debate not just theoretical, useful as both shape behaviour and offer effective therapies

Question 46

What are 2 weaknesses of the nature nurture debate?

Answer 46

Hard to separate their relative contribution as nature and nurture exert influence on each other - genes exert influence over behaviour (niche picking) -> seek experiences/ environments that suit their genes (eg: musically talented selects musical friends and experiences) - Maguire et al structural brain scans on London taxi drivers -> posterior hippocampus larger (‘The Knowledge’ test and special navigation skills) Doesn’t make sense to look for evidence of N/N, should rather follow an interactionist approach to explain behaviour… Both sides have led to extremist views - extreme nativist, determinist stance links race (genetics) to intelligence, addiction. Used by Hitler to create master race - extreme empiricist, behaviour shaping -> social control/manipulation eg: Stalin (USSR) believed could engineer citizens through conditioning Psychologists should be aware of negative ethical implications of taking an extreme position

Question 47

Why is the interactionist approach better than just nature or just nurture?

Answer 47

Interactionist considers impact of both nature and nurture: holistic - diathesis stress model- eg: MAOA-L variant and abusive childhood → aggression - epigenetics- in WW2, Nazi’s blocked distribution of food to Dutch, women gave birth to low-birth-weight babies -> 2x more likely to develop sz (previous life experiences influence health of children) Importance and usefulness of interactionist approach to fully understand behaviour

Question 48

What is the idiographic approach to psychological investigation?

Answer 48

Focuses on individual/small group -> unique personal experience to understand behaviour Doesn’t compare, conclusions may be generalised with caution to help others going through similar experiences

Question 49

What is the nomothetic approach to psychological investigation?

Answer 49

Investigates large, varied group -> general laws/models to understand behaviour Compares (IQ), classifies (DSM V), and measures people against general laws (WMM), to predict and then change behaviour

Question 50

What are the methods of study for the idiographic approach?

Answer 50

Qualitative (case studies, unstructured interviews, open questions) Analysed by thematic analysis

Question 51

What are the methods of study for the nomothetic approach?

Answer 51

Quantitative (experiments, correlational analysis, observations) Analysed for statistical significance

Question 52

Why does the idiographic approach reject the scientific method?

Answer 52

Objectivity not possible- looks at individual’s unique, subjective experience, what a behaviour means to them

Question 53

How does the nomothetic approach adopt the scientific method?

Answer 53

OTHER Large sample size is representative -> develops laws Helps establish psych as a science

Question 54

Which 2 approaches adopt the idiographic approach?

Answer 54

Humanistic: Maslow + Rogers study conscious, subjective experience of individual Psychodynamic: studies unique individuals with clinical case study method to understand clients and help them overcome psychological disorders- eg: Little Hans

Question 55

Which 4 approaches adopt the nomothetic approach?

Answer 55

Biological: when explaining + treating disorders Behaviourist: established laws of learning (classical/operant) Cognitive: MSM, WMM believed to generalise to all Social psychology: general conclusions about human behaviour (situational factors responsible for conformity)

Question 56

What is a strength of the idiographic approach? (weakness of nomothetic)

Answer 56

Focuses attention on individual - qualitative data gives more complete, holistic understanding of behaviour - leads to specific treatment, rather than general - nomothetic loses the individual: eg 1% chance of developing sz says little about subjective experience if diagnosed with disorder Doesn’t overlook the importance and richness of individual human experience

Question 57

What is a strength of the nomothetic approach? (weakness of idiographic)

Answer 57

Significant emphasis on finding patterns means results generalised to wider population - behaviour predicted, controlled, changed - eg: personality questionnaires useful when selecting employees - eg: DSM 5 for diagnosis, then treatment - idiographic small samples (eg Little Hans -> Oedipus complex) unrepresentative sample to produce valid theories Looking for similarities led to significant RW application that benefitted society HOWEVER maybe not appropriate to generalise widely (context crucial), eg: auditory hallucinations not a disorder in African cultures (not helpful)

Question 58

Why is it best to use both an idiographic and nomothetic approach to psychological investigation?

Answer 58

Idiographic contributes to nomothetic by challenging/adding to existing psychological body of knowledge - KF highlighting significant flaw in MSM -> validity questions -> development of WMM - split brain patient case studies add to brains scans looking at hemispheric lateralisation -> better understanding Employing both approaches to investigation allows rich, detailed descriptions of human behaviour within framework of valid general laws

Question 59

What is universality?

Answer 59

The belief that some behaviours/characteristics are the same for all humans, regardless of experience/ upbringing/ gender/ culture

Question 60

Why is it key to develop theories that show the similarities and differences between males/females?

Answer 60

So no gender is devalued

Question 61

What is androcentrism

Answer 61

Male-centred view of the world, so theories explaining behaviour accepts male behaviour as the norm/desirable If female behaviour differs from norm, judged as abnormal/less desirable, so female behaviour misunderstood or even pathologised

Question 62

Why does androcentrism occur?

Answer 62

Historically male psychologists

Question 63

What is an example of androcentrism?

Answer 63

Male anger = rational response to external pressure Female anger = premenstrual syndrome

Question 64

What is the definition of gender bias?

Answer 64

Tendency for differential treatment towards one gender over another

Question 65

What are the 2 types of gender bias?

Answer 65

Alpha bias Beta bias

Question 66

What is alphas bias, and what is the consequence of it?

Answer 66

Tendency to exaggerate differences between males & females One gender’s behaviour being misrepresented/ discriminated against/ undervalued

Question 67

What is an example of alpha bias?

Answer 67

Freud’s theory of moral development In phallic stage, boys have very strong castration anxiety, resolved when identifying with father Girls not under same pressure, so identify with mother later -> weaker superego and sense of morality (devalued)

Question 68

What is beta bias, and what is the consequence of it?

Answer 68

Tendency to ignore/ minimise differences between males & females (assumes universality) One gender’s behaviour being misrepresented/not fully understood

Question 69

What is an example of beta bias?

Answer 69

Asch Assumed no need to use female participants, but actually conformity higher in women as more concerned with social relationships

Question 70

What are 7 ways to reduce gender bias?

Answer 70

Use M+ F in research Use M + F researchers Don't exaggerate/minimise findings Don't extrapolate findings Be sensitive to norms when reporting findings Challenge existing theories Reflexive approach

Question 71

Why is it important to reduce gender/culture bias?

Answer 71

Leads to theories that account for real differences between behaviours

Question 72

What are 2 'negative consequences' of gender bias?

Answer 72

Negative consequences for males - depression 2x more common in women - partly due to socio-cultural perspective -> women more likely to seek diagnosis and talk about feelings on the ‘man-up’ notion - psychologists more likely to diagnose women due to biases Males not receiving treatment Negative consequences for females - alpha bias: ‘survival efficiency’ genetically programs men to be promiscuous to pass on genes, seen as a positive behaviour in males (not females, discriminated) - beta bias: ‘fight/flight’ stress response early research into males due to female hormone fluctuation, universality assumed, female stress response misunderstood Highlights need to reduce gender bias so as explanations of females not valid, are discriminated

Question 73

What is a weakness of gender bias?

Answer 73

Research challenging gender biases published less - analysis on >1000 articles found research on gender bias funded less often + published by less prestigious journals - people less aware, may not apply to their work Gender bias not taken as seriously as other biases

Question 74

What is a strength of discussing gender bias?

Answer 74

Discussing gender bias is useful as can lead to reformation of theories, better understanding of female behaviour - women ‘tend and befriend’ response is adaptive (care/protect/form allies) - plentiful oxytocin in women reduces F/F - theory accounts for real differences Becoming more aware of beta bias develops theories that show similarities and differences between genders

Question 75

What is cultural universalism?

Answer 75

Belief that some behaviours are the same for all cultures

Question 76

Why is it key to develop theories that show the similarities and differences between dif cultures?

Answer 76

So no culture is devalued

Question 77

What is the definition of culture bias?

Answer 77

Tendency to interpret behaviour through own cultural lens, ignoring effects of cultural differences

Question 78

Why does culture bias exist?

Answer 78

Due to research on WEIRD people (western educated people from industrialised rich democracies)

Question 79

What is the issue of most research being on WEIRD people?

Answer 79

Theories use this standard to judge behaviour, behaviour of other cultures seen as abnormal/ inferior/ unusual -> discrimination

Question 80

What is ethnocentrism?

Answer 80

Tendency to see behaviour from standards + values of own culture - sees their culture as superior and the norm

Question 81

What is the consequence of ethnocentrism?

Answer 81

Other cultures judged against these standards + values of researcher -> prejudice + discrimination

Question 82

What is cultural relativism?

Answer 82

Behaviour varies between cultures so can only be properly understood within specific social and cultural contexts - sees all cultures as worthy of respect - inappropriate to study one culture and generalise findings

Question 83

What does an etic approach do?

Answer 83

Identifies universal behaviours between cultures

Question 84

What does an emic approach do?

Answer 84

Identifies behaviours specific to cultures

Question 85

What is an example of the etic approach?

Answer 85

Buss, 33 countries to produce universal theory of mate preference

Question 86

What are 7 ways to reduce culture bias?

Answer 86

Representative sample Reflexive approach Immersion Standards (don't assume universal across cultures) Be sensitive to norms when reporting findings Emic/etic approach Cross-cultural research

Question 87

What are 2 weaknesses of culture bias?

Answer 87

Most influential studies culturally biased, due to ethnocentrism - Asch exclusively Americans (mostly white, middle class) - replications show China (collectivist) more likely to conform than England individualist) When behaviour studied in one culture, theories should only be applied to that culture Negative consequences: discrimination + prejudice - WW1 first intelligence test on 1.75 million army recruits - many questions ethnocentric: eg naming US presidents - recruits from SE Europe and African-Americans lowest scores, deemed mentally unfit and unintelligent - denied educational + professional opportunities Avoiding cultural bias matters to reduce discrimination + prejudice, and rather explain real differences in theories

Question 88

What is a counter/strength to influential studies being culturally biased?

Answer 88

Increasing globalisation means individualist-collectivist distinction no longer applies - traditional argument suggests individualist cultures value independence and collectivist value interdependence - as society develops, increased interconnectedness between cultures and in 14/15 studies comparing US-Japan, distinction doesn’t apply (too simplistic) Integration means cultural bias less of an issue, psychologists can move away from I/C categorisations

Question 89

What is social sensitivity?

Answer 89

Research and theories which have potential implications or consequences, such as prejudice and discrimination

Question 90

What are ethical implications?

Answer 90

Impact or consequences that research and theories have on the rights/wellbeing of... Participants who took part in the study Group of people represented by the reseatch Changes at a societal level

Question 91

What are the 4 ways to reduce the negative consequences from socially sensitive research?

Answer 91

1. Aim of investigation doesn’t misrepresent certain groups: must consider research question carefully as phasing may influence the how findings are interpreted 2. Consider the design and methodology: CBA, informed consent for trauma, consider treatment during and after, submit research proposals to ethics committees + abide by recommendations, ensuring ethics met 3. Institutional context: ensure data isn’t misused/misunderstood/ misinterpreted, should know purpose of research and intended use 4. Interpretation + application of findings in RW: avoid prejudicial/biased representations of findings, consider if findings used for other unintended purposes or to inform policy

Question 92

What is a strength of socially sensitive research?

Answer 92

Benefits on group represented + society - DSM-1 listed homosexuality as a sociopathic personality disorder - eventually removed as a report of anonymous interview of >5000 men and 6000 women, concluding homosexuality is a typical expression of human sexual behaviour - Loftus + Palmer, EWT for crime not completely accurate -> less wrongful convictions, development of more accurate cognitive interview Important to tackle socially sensitive topics to reduce discrimination, SS research plays valuable role in society

Question 93

What is a weakness of socially sensitive research?

Answer 93

Negative consequences - Burt showed intelligence was genetic, used 11+ exams to see if children can go to grammar school (influencing later life opportunities) - but fraudulent, as IQ affected by experience - still used today, disadvantaging lots of children due to flawed assessments - in 1920s USA, IQ also seen as genetic so those with low IQ sterilised If findings in socially sensitive research invalid, can have negative enduring effects

Question 94

What is the overall view on whether socially sensitive research should be carried out (AO3)?

Answer 94

All research goes through ethics committee which conducts CBA BUT still challenging to predict how the findings will affect people/society