Issues and debates Flashcards

Question

A03 culture bias PLAN

Answer 1

(D)One way to deal with cultural bias is to recognise when it occurs (D)A further issue is that culturally biased research can have significant real-world effects - for example amplifying and validating damaging stereotypes. (D)Operationalisation of variables (D)Psychologists have suggested that traditional distinctions between cultures are no longer relevant.

Answer 2

Smith & Bond (1998) surveyed research in one European textbook on social psychology and found that 66% of the studies were American, 32% European and 2% came from the rest of the world. A more recent study (Henrich et al, 2010) found that 67% of research participants were American psychology students. The researchers calculated that a randomly selected American student was 4,000 times more likely to be a participant in a psychology study than a random non -westerner. This suggests that psychological research is very unrepresentative and can be greatly improved simply by selecting a variety of cultural groups to study. Consequently, an appreciation and understanding of cultural bias can help psychologists to avoid issues of cultural bias.

Answer 3

One of the most infamous examples of the damage done by psychologists through cultural bias was the US Army IQ test used just before the First World War. The test used was culturally biased toward the dominant white majority. These tests showed that European immigrants fell slightly below white Americans in terms of IQ, and African - Americans were at the bottom of the scale with the lowest mental age. This had a damaging effect on the attitudes of Americans towards this group of people, which is indicative of the negative impact that culturally biased research can have. Because a considerable amount of psychology is based on middle-class, academic, young adults its results do not reflect the behaviour apparent in a variety of cultures. Therefore, it is only by developing an awareness and understanding of cultural bias that psychologists can try to avoid and overcome these problems caused by this issue in the future.

Answer 4

One other issue with conducting research in different cultures is that the variables under review may not be experienced in the same way by all ptps. For instance, the behavioural expression (as opposed to the facial expression) of emotions such as 'aggression' may give rise to quite different behaviours in different cultures. In China, the invasion of personal space is seen as normal, whereas in the UK this may be seen as threatening or confrontational. Issues like these may affects interactions between the researcher and ptps in cross-cultural studies.

Answer 5

Psychologists often refer to cultures as individualist (associated with Western cultures like the US who are thought to value independence) or collectivist (like China and India, which are said place more emphasis on interdependence and the needs of the group). However, critics have suggested that, in this age of global communication and increased interconnectedness, this simplistic distinction between cultures no longer applies. Takano and Osaka (1999) found that 14 out of 15 studies that compared the USA and Japan found no evidence of the traditional distinction between individualism and collectivism. This matters because it suggests that cultural bias in research is less of an issue than it once was.

Answer 6

Freewill is the view that people can control their behaviour by making choices and so can override any biological or environmental influences.

Answer 7

This is the view that free will is an illusion, and that our behaviour is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control. Consequently, our behaviour is viewed as predictable. The following are classed as strongly determinist views: * Peoples’ behaviour always has a cause. * People have no choice about how to act.

Answer 8

Hard determinism is the view that forces outside of our control (e.g., biology or past experience) shape our behaviour. Hard determinism is seen as incompatible with free will.

Answer 9

Soft determinism is the view that behaviour is constrained by the environment or biological make-up, but only to a certain extent and that there is an element of free will in all behaviour

Answer 10

This is the view that all human behaviour is innate and determined by genes. -Hard determinism

Answer 11

This is the view that behaviour is caused by forces outside the individual. Consequently, behaviour is caused by previous experience learned through classical and operant conditioning. -Hard determinism

Answer 12

This claims that human behaviour is the result of childhood experiences and innate drives (id, ego, and superego) put forward by Freud’s model of psychological development.

Answer 13

a causal explanation is based on the scientific notion that behaviour is caused/determined by internal/external factors – there is a cause and effect relationship. The focus of scientific (empirical) evidence has led to an upsurge in determinist theories as determinism is thought to be underpinned by causation. A determinist argument must be able to show that the behaviour has been caused (determined) by something that is not within the individual’s control. This can only be demonstrated using a lab experiment - if there is a change in the DV when all EVs are controlled, then the IV must be responsible for the change (determined it).

Answer 14

The biological approach suggests that OCD is genetic. Nestadt et al (2000) found that people with first degree relatives who suffer from OCD are five times more likely to suffer from OCD at some point in their lives.

Answer 15

The behaviourist approach suggests that phobias are acquired through classical, and maintained through operant, conditioning.

Answer 16

SLT suggests that thought processes mediate between stimulus and behaviour. This approach takes a soft deterministic line as it acknowledges that reinforcement affects behaviour, but that there are cognitive processes that moderate the response.

Answer 17

(+)taking a determinist approach is consistent with the aims of science. (-) determinist explanations tend to oversimplify human behaviour. (D)Some Psychologists believe free will is an illusion

Answer 18

The notion that human behaviour obeys laws places psychology on an equal footing with other more established sciences. In addition, the value of determinist research is that it has led to the development of treatments, therapies, and behavioural interventions. These treatments have benefitted many – for example, psychotherapeutic drug treatment in controlling and managing schizophrenia. strength because determinist psychology has led to very significant practical applications.

Answer 19

They may be appropriate for non-human animals (e.g., explaining mating behaviour in a peacock in terms of biological factors), but human behaviour is less rigid and is influenced by many factors such as cognitions and emotions which can override biological impulses. limitation because determinist explanations might not provide a valid explanation of human behaviour.

Answer 20

This viewpoint was most strongly put forward by BF Skinner who suggested that behaviours such as being able to decide between different courses of action is not free will, but it may give us the illusion of having freewill. His point was that a person might choose to buy a particular car or see a particular film, but in fact these choices are determined by previous reinforcement experiences. limitation because the concept of freewill may be idealistic rather than valid.

Answer 21

the argument that behaviour is governed by nature (e.g., genes etc) and by nurture (e.g., environment, experiences etc). The debate being about the relative contribution of each of these influences

Answer 22

* The view that behaviour is the product of innate biological or genetic factors. -Early nativists such as Rene descartes argued that human characteristics - and even some aspects of knowledge - are innate: the result of heredity * Heredity (genetic inheritance) is the process in which traits are passed down from one generation to the next. * Many psychological disorders, for example SZ, are said to have a genetic component. Research has found concordance rates of 40% in monozygotic twins and 7% in dizygotic twins, suggesting that nature is a powerful contributing factor in SZ.

Answer 23

The view that we learn all our behaviour from our environment and experiences. Environment is seen as everything outside the body which can include people, events, and the physical world. -In contrast to Descartes, empiricists including John Locke argued that the mind is 'tabula rasa' (blank slate) at birth upon which learning and experience writes; the result of the environment.

Answer 24

The view that nature and nurture work together to shape human behaviour. It argues that the true answer to the nature-nurture debate is that both genetics and the environment play a part in behaviour. This approach argues that an individual is predisposed to certain behaviours but that an environmental trigger is necessary for it to be initiated. An example of this is intelligence. The interactionist approach argues that we have a genetic predisposition to attain a certain level of intelligence and that we either reach our potential (if the environment is ideal) or we underperform due to environmental factors such as diet, poor education, brain injury, etc.

Answer 25

The heritability coefficient is used to assess heredity. It is a numerical figure ranging from 0 to 1.0 which indicates the extent to which a characteristic has a genetic basis (a value of 1 meaning it is entirely genetically determined). The general figure for heritability in IQ is around 0.5 across multiple studies in varying populations (Plomin 1994). This suggests that both genetics and the environment are important factors in intelligence.

Answer 26

Epigenetics: the life experience of previous generations. Epigenetics refers to a change in our genetic activity without changing our genetic code. It is a process that happens throughout life and is caused by interaction with the environment. Aspects of our lifestyle, and the events we encounter - from smoking and diet to pollution and war- leave epigenetic 'marks' on our DNA. These 'marks' tell our bodies which genes to ignore and which to use, and in turn, may go on and influence the genetic codes of our children, as well as their children.

Answer 27

Bowlby proposed that children come into the world biologically programmed to form attachments because this will help them to survive. This suggests attachment behaviours are naturally selected and passed on a result of genetic inheritance.

Answer 28

Behavioural psychologists explain attachment in terms of classical conditioning where food (UCS) is associated with the mother (NS) and, through many repeated pairings, the mother becomes a CS who elicits a CR in the child. As a result, the child forms an attachment based on the pleasure experienced as a result of being fed

Answer 29

The Interactionist Approach: A broad approach to explaining SZ, which acknowledges that a range of factors, including biological and psychological factors, are involved in the development of SZ. The Diathesis-Stress Model: An interactionist approach to explaining behaviour. For example, SZ is explained as the result of both underling vulnerability (diathesis) and a trigger, both of which are necessary for the onset of SZ. In early versions of the model, vulnerability was genetic, and triggers were psychological. Nowadays both genes and trauma are seen as diatheses, and stress can be psychological or biological in nature

Answer 30

(D)An implication of taking a purely nature view is that our behaviour is determined, and we have no free will to override our ‘biological destiny’. (D)Constructivism (+)research support for genetic influence (nature) + COUNTER (-)taking a purely nature or nurture stance is over-simplistic and ignores the interaction between the two as shown by research into epigenetics and the diathesis-stress model.

Answer 31

Nativists suggest that 'anatomy is destiny' in that our inherited genetic make-up determines our characteristics and behaviour, whilst the environment has little input. This extreme determinist stance has led to controversy as has been apparent with attempts to link race, genetics and intelligence and resulting application of eugenics policies. (For example, compulsory sterilization of many citizens on the grounds that they were ‘feeble minded’ in the 1920s). However, taking an extreme nurture/empiricist view is also dangerous as the behaviourist concept of behaviour shaping could be used by a state to control and manipulate its citizens by selectively reinforcing behaviours deemed desirable and punishing deemed undesirable. This is a limitation because if psychologists adopt such an extreme view it can lead to prejudice and discrimination.

Answer 32

The notion that genes and environment interact is elaborated by constructivism. People create their own 'nurture' by actively selecting environments that are appropriate for their 'nature'. Thus, a naturally aggressive child is likely to feel more comfortable around children who show similar behaviours and will 'choose' their environments accordingly. This environment then affects their development. Robert Plomin (1994) refers to this an niche-picking and niche-building - further evidence that it is impossible and illogical to try to separate nature and nurture influences on the child's behaviour.

Answer 33

For example, in the topic of psychopathology Nestadt et al (2010) examined previous twin studies in relation to OCD. Nestadt found an average concordance rate of 68% in monozygotic twins and a 31% concordance rate in dizygotic twins. Whilst these results provide evidence of a strong genetic component as the concordance rate of MZ twins is significantly higher than that of DZ twins, MZ twins are100% genetically identical and so, if behaviour was dictated purely by genes, they would always behave in the same way. This study does not show 100% concordance rate and so environment must have an influence.

Answer 34

Furthermore, the core assumption of twin studies is that the only difference between MZ and DZ twins is their genetic similarity, but this is not the case. For instance, as MZ twins look the same it is possible that people treat them more similarly than they do DZ twins. This would mean that the environmental effect could be much stronger for MZ twins than for DZ twins and hence that any difference in behavioural similarity between MZ and DZ twins could be due to nurture not nature. Consequently, twin studies highlight the importance of taking an interactionist approach when attempting to explain human behaviour.

Answer 35

Epigenetics refers to the study of changes in organisms caused by modification of gene expression without altering an individual’s genetic code. Research into epigenetics suggests that the environment (e.g. nutrition quality or stress levels) can act as the trigger which increases/decreases the expression of certain genes. These changes in phenotype may then be passed on to subsequent generations. This means that nurture (environment) can have a direct influence on nature (phenotype) and the effect is so strong that it can influence heredity. Similarly, the diathesis-stress model is often used to explain mental disorders such as phobias, depression or OCD and suggests that an individual is born with a biological vulnerability (a diathesis) but that expression of the gene or genes depends on experience in the form of a 'stressor’ which triggers the disorder (nurture). Research into epigenetics and the diathesis-stress model demonstrates how nature and nurture are less independent than was previously thought.

Answer 36

The nature-nurture debate in recent times has moved from the argument between the extreme circumstances to the general acknowledgement that an interactionist stance is seen to be appropriate. The argument now is based on the relative influence of nature and nurture.

Answer 37

Attempts to describe the nature of the individual. people are studied as unique entities, each with their own subjective experiences, motivations and values. They do not attempt to compare/generalise these to a larger group, standard or norm. Strong supporters of the idiographic stance would be unlikely to conduct large-scale studies or use quantitative methods at all. They believe that an individual is unique and that they should be considered as such. It is therefore irrelevant to try to develop universal laws of behaviour. This stance is adopted by the humanist approach which celebrates the uniqueness of each person. They are more likely to use methods that produce qualitative data, such as case studies, unstructured interviews and other self-report methods.

Answer 38

The main aim is to produce general laws of human behaviour. These provide a 'benchmark' against which people can be compared, classified and measured, and on the basis of which, likely future behaviour can be predicted and/or controlled. This approach is most closely aligned with those methods that would be regarded as 'scientific' within psychology such as experiments. These involve the study of large numbers of people in order to establish ways in which people are similar

Answer 39

Behaviourists such as Pavlov and Skinner conducted experiments with animals in order to establish laws of learning (classical and operant conditioning) that could be generalised to humans and animals. These theories generalise and there is little mention of unique personal experience. For example, Duck's phase model of relationship breakdown suggests that all individuals go through the same stages when their relationship comes to an end. The attachment styles found in Ainsworth's (1970) strange situation using a controlled observation producing classifications: secure; insecure-resistant; insecure-avoidant.

Answer 40

The humanistic approach actively rejects any attempts to generalise across all humans. It does not adhere to the scientific principles that most psychologists advocate. In describing themselves as 'anti-scientific', humanistic psychologists were more concerned with investigates unique experienced 'on its own merits' than producing general laws of behaviour. The psychodynamic approach is often labelled 'idiographic' because of Sigmund Freud's use of the case study method when detailing the lives of his patients. However, Freud also assumed he had identified universal laws of behaviour and personality development (which is more akin to a nomothetic approach).

Answer 41

(+)Nomothetic may be more precise and scientific than idiographic (-)A nomothetic approach is often too simplistic and can be viewed as incomplete and inadequate for describing the complexities of human behaviour (+)The idiographic approach with its in-depth qualitative methods of investigation provides a provides a complete and global account of the individual which may complement the nomothetic approach by shedding further light and general laws or indeed by challenging such laws. (-)The Idiographic view lacks scientific rigour

Answer 42

The processes involved in nomothetic research tend to be more scientific, mirroring those employed within the natural sciences such as testing under controlled conditions and using standardised procedures. These controlled methods allow psychologists to replicate research to examine the reliability of findings. strength of a nomothetic approach because it means that theories can be generated which gives psychology greater credibility and has helped psychology establish itself as a scientific discipline.

Answer 43

A nomothetic approach is often too simplistic and can be viewed as incomplete and inadequate for describing the complexities of human behaviour. The preoccupation within the nomothetic approach on general laws, prediction and control has been accused of 'losing the whole person'. Knowing that there is a 1 % lifetime risk of developing schizophrenia tells us little about what life is like for someone who is suffering from the disorder, for example. Similarly, in lab studies involving tests of memory, participants are treated as a series of scores rather than individuals and their subjective experience of the situation is ignored. This means that, in its search for generalities, the nomothetic approach may sometimes overlook the richness of human experience.

Answer 44

For example, a single case may generate hypotheses for further study such as the case studies of CW and HM which have provided insight into how memory works. Case studies of brain damaged individuals, like Phineas Gage and ‘Tan’, may reveal important insights about normal functioning which may contribute to our overall understanding of human behaviour. It is therefore useful to use nomothetic and idiographic Approaches together rather than together rather than thinking of them as two separate sides of an argument.

Answer 45

On the other hand, supporters of the idiographic approach must still recognise the narrow and restricted nature of their work. One criticism of Freud’s work is that many of his key concepts, like the Oedipus complex, were largely developed from the detailed study of a single case (in this instance of Little Hans). The conclusion was based on Freud’s subjective interpretation of Hans’ behaviour, which leaves the study open to the accusation that it suffers from researcher bias. In addition, this was a one-off unique case and meaningful generalisation cannot be made without further examples. This is a limitation because if psychologists took a purely idiographic approach then theories would not progress as there needs to be an attempt to prove a theory false through replication.

Answer 46

The issue with idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation is that they are often seen as mutually exclusive. However, it is possible to consider the same topic from both perspectives. For example, cognitive psychologists typically take a nomothetic approach to create general laws but they also take advantage of the idiographic approach when using case studies such as HM, KF and Clive Wearing as evidence. Rather than deciding whether it is more important to study people in general or individuals in isolation, research could start with the nomothetic approach and, once laws have been produced, shift to a more idiographic approach. Indeed, it can be argued that psychologists should employ both types of research approach depending on the nature of research question.

Answer 47

‘Ethical implications’ is a reference to the consideration of the impact or consequences that psychological research has on the rights of other people in a wider context, not just the participants taking part in a given piece of psychological research.

Answer 48

Sieber & Stanley (1988) used the term ‘socially sensitive’ to describe studies in which there are potential social consequences for the participants, or the group of people represented by the research.

Answer 49

The degree of social sensitivity of research must be an important consideration when planning what will be examined. Some psychologists believe that if the research is likely to have a detrimental effect it should not be conducted. Others, however, believe that socially sensitive research should be conducted if the outcomes would be useful to society. If socially sensitive conclusions are reached then we must be sure that they are accurate so, when examining a piece of socially sensitive research, it is important to assess the method used and decide if the conclusions are valid and/or reliable. Some areas of research are likely to be more controversial than others and are therefore subject to greater social sensitivity.

Answer 50

* Researchers should be aware of the implications of their research. * Researchers should be aware of the possible negative impact for the people in in the sample. * Researchers should be aware of the possible negative implications of the research for the reputation of the specific group they are studying, e.g., if it is a specific school they are studying. * Researchers should brief/debrief participants sensitively. * Researchers should take in care in relation to publication, disclosure of results and confidentiality/anonymity.

Answer 51

1)The research question: The researcher must consider their research question carefully. Asking questions like ‘Are there racial differences in IQ?’ or ‘Is intelligence inherited?’ may be damaging to members of a particular group. 2)The methodology to be used: The researcher needs to consider the treatment of the participants and their right to confidentiality and anonymity. For example, if someone admits to committing a crime, should the researcher maintain confidentiality? 3)The institutional context: The researcher should be mindful of how the data is going to be used and consider who is funding the research. If the research is funded by a private institution or organisation, why are they funding the research and how do they intend to use the findings? 4)Interpretation and application of findings: Finally, the researcher needs to consider how their findings might be interpreted and applied to the real world. Could their data or results be used to inform policy?

Answer 52

Bowlby’s theory: Bowlby’s theory of attachment suggests that children form one special attachment bond, usually with their mother, and that this bond must be formed within a short ‘critical period’. Bowlby also suggested that this attachment bond affects the future relationships of the child as it leads to the creation of an internal working model relating to the conduct of relationships. Ethical implication: While Bowlby’s theory has contributed to the development of childcare practices, it has also encouraged the view that a women’s place is at home with her children. This could make some mothers feel guilty for wanting to return to work following childbirth. Social sensitivity: It could also be argued that Bowlby’s theory of attachment is socially sensitive as it could be used to coerce mothers to stay at home and look after their children

Answer 53

(-)conducting socially sensitive research can lead to prejudice and discrimination. As a result some psychologists would argue against conducting this form of research (D)The implication of this issue is that it raises the question of whether socially sensitive research should be conducted at all. (D)It is important to recognise that not all socially sensitive research is controversial and that some is desirable and beneficial to society. (D)Socially sensitive findings may be a result of researcher bias.

Answer 54

In the 1930s, for example, a large number of US states enacted legislation that led to the compulsory sterilisation of many citizens on the grounds that they were 'feeble-minded' and a drain on society. This included people deemed to be of low intelligence, drug or alcohol addicts, and the mentally ill. The rationale, supported by many sections of the scientific and psychological community at the time, was that such feeble-minded people were 'unfit' to breed. This is a limitation because it is a clear example of how socially sensitive research has been used to support practices.

Answer 55

For example, it has been argued by some those psychologists should avoid research on homosexuality, race, gender, addiction, etc. because the findings may have negative consequences for the participants, the section of society they represent, or indeed for the whole of society. However, this would probably leave psychologists with nothing to examine but unimportant issues.Sieber & Stanley's view is that to simply ignore sensitive research is not a responsible approach to science. They suggest that avoiding controversial topics, simply because they are controversial, is also an avoidance of responsibility and that psychologists have a duty to conduct such research appropriately. The failure to accurately represent and research such groups as the elderly, the disadvantaged, and members o f minority cultures carries with it an additional ethical issue as not to undertake such research means that these groups would miss out on any of the potential benefits resulting from it.

Answer 56

For example, research examining eye-witness testimony, especially the use of child witnesses, has found that young children can be reliable witnesses if they are questioned in a timely and appropriate manner. In this area, socially sensitive research has resulted in a good working relationship between psychologists and the legal profession to help improve the accuracy and validity of children eye- witnesses. Furthermore, Sandra Scarr (1988) argues that studies of underrepresented groups and issues may promote a greater sensitivity and understanding and can help reduce prejudice and encourage acceptance. This suggests that socially sensitive research may play a valuable role in society and should not be avoided.

Answer 57

Sieber & Stanley (1988) warn that the way in which research questions are phrased and investigated may influence the way in which findings are interpreted. Findings from cross-cultural research may, for instance, be confounded by cultural superiority and ethnocentrism on the part of the researchers. In addition, Celia Kitzinger & Adrian Coyle (1995) note how research into so-called 'alternative relationships' has been guilty of a form of 'heterosexual bias’ since homosexual relationships were compared to, and judged against, heterosexual norms. This suggests that investigators must approach their research with an open mind and be prepared to have their preconceptions challenged if they are to avoid misrepresenting minority groups and producing socially sensitive conclusions.

Answer 58

The ethical guidelines set by the BPS are seen by some to be too strict as there are areas of research which could elicit helpful findings and could benefit a lot of people. As it is not possible to see what the effects of research might be before it is undertaken, it is very hard to judge the appropriateness of research prior to publication. The real impact of research can only ever be known once it has been made public which means that socially sensitive research still causes problems from time to time. Despite this, if psychologists avoided such research, then we may only ever gain insight into trivial behaviours. Researchers therefore should not avoid socially sensitive research but should always be mindful of the impact it may have and take adequate steps to ensure that their research produces date which is valid and reliable.

Answer 59

There are different ways of viewing the same phenomena (levels of explanation) and the reductionism/holism debate considers if the most valid method is to examine one level alone (reductionism) or more than one level at the same time (holism). The notion of ‘levels of explanation’ suggests that there are different ways of viewing the same phenomena e.g., cognitions, cultural norms, learned associations, physiology, biochemistry etc. * The lowest level of explanation focuses on basic components (reductionism) * The middle level is psychological * The highest level is cultural and social explanations (holism).

Answer 60

Reductionism is the belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into simpler component parts. An explanation is reductionist when a single cause for a complex behaviour is suggested e.g. depression is due to genetic factors. A reductionist theory does not consider all the different levels of explanation and may therefore be considered over-simplistic.

Answer 61

- Biological reductionism: Refers to the way that biological psychologists try to reduce behaviour to a physical level and explain it in terms of neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones, brain structure etc. - Environmental reductionism: Also known as stimulus-response reductionism. Behaviourists assume that all behaviour can be reduced to the simple building blocks of stimulus and response (S-R) associations and that complex behaviours are therefore a series of S-R chains.

Answer 62

Holism comes from the Greek word ‘holos’ which means ‘all’, ‘entire’ or ‘whole’ and is the idea that human behaviour should be viewed as a whole integrated experience and not as separate parts. This approach is concerned with higher levels of explanation such as the behaviour of individuals within a group. Psychologists favouring a holistic approach usually use qualitative methods to discover the multiple underlying social and cultural reasons for a behaviour.

Answer 63

The interactionist stance on the debate maintains that several levels of explanation are necessary to account for behaviour ranging from the more reductionist to the more holistic. Interactionists argue that all explanations have relevance, and it is difficult to establish which has the best explanatory power, particularly since this varies from situation to situation. The interactionist standpoint suggests that no one explanation in isolation can be taken as correct and hence that, often, the best way to use them is in conjunction with each other

Answer 64

Social and cultural explanations (the influence of social groups on behaviour) Example: OCD could be explained at as social and cultural level as producing a behaviour, such as repetitive hand washing, that most people would regard as odd or irrational.

Answer 65

Psychological explanations (Cognitive, behavioural/environmental) Example: OCD is explained at a psychological level as the experience of having obsessive thoughts. OCD at a physical level is a sequence of movements involved in washing one’s hands .

Answer 66

Biological explanations (neurochemical, genetic, brain structure etc) Example: OCD can be explained at a physiological level, as hypersensitivity of the basal ganglia and at a neurochemical level as the underproduction of serotonin.

Answer 67

The biological approach claims that OCD is caused by higher levels of dopamine and lower levels of serotonin and therefore reduces the cause of OCD down to an imbalance of neurotransmitters.

Answer 68

The behaviourist approach claims that phobias are initiated through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning.

Answer 69

Humanistic psychology argues that humans react to stimuli as an organised whole, rather than a set of stimulus-response links. As an approach, it uses qualitative methods to investigate all aspects of the individual, as well as the interactions between people.

Answer 70

(+) Taking a reductionist view may provide a more precise and scientific explanation than the ones at the higher and more general levels of explanation. (-)Limitation of taking a reductionist view is that if lower levels (biological or behavioural) are considered in isolation, then the overall meaning of behaviour may be overlooked. (+)Taking a reductionist view can be used to generate appropriate treatment for psychological disorders. (D)The interactionist stance on the reductionism holism debate is that that several levels of explanation are needed to explain behaviour, ranging from biological explanations to social and cultural explanations.

Answer 71

A reductionist approach often forms the basis of scientific research because in order to create operationalised variables it is necessary to break target behaviours down into simple component parts. This makes it possible to conduct experiments or record observations in a way that is meaningful and reliable. On the other hand, holistic explanations can become vague and speculative as they become more complex. Humanistic psychology, for example, is often criticised for its lack of empirical evidence. This allows researchers to study the different factors that influence human behaviour in a controlled manner while establishing causal relationships. Consequently, both biological and environmental reductionism are viewed as scientific approaches, whereas holism is not.

Answer 72

For example, the effects of conformity to social roles and the de individuation of the prisoners and guards in the Stanford prison experiment could not be understood by studying the participants as individuals as it was the interaction between people and the behaviour of the group that was important. limitation because it suggests that holistic level explanations provide a more complete and global understanding of behaviour than do reductionist approaches.

Answer 73

For example, biological reductionism has helped facilitate the development of drug therapies which help people who are suffering from mental health problems such as SZ. A strength of such treatments is that they have led to a considerable reduction in institutionalisation since the 1950s. It is also a more humane approach to the treatment of mental illness insofar as it does not blame the patient. This is a strength of reductionism as such explanations have significant practical applications whereas higher level explanations may not provide solutions to real-world problems. Higher level explanations that combine many different perspectives present researchers with a practical dilemma because, if we accept that there are many factors that contribute to a disorder, it becomes difficult to establish which is the main influence and which one to focus on in therapy

Answer 74

However, drug therapies are fraught with difficulties. Their success rates are variable, and many psychologists believe that they treat the symptoms and not the cause. Reducing mental illness to the biological level ignores the context and function of such behaviour whereas psychological explanations take account of these and have also produced many successful therapies

Answer 75

For example, the diathesis-stress model explains mental disorders such as OCD as the outcome of a predisposition (COMT or SERT gene variation) which is then triggered by a stressor. The interactionist standpoint suggests that one explanation in isolation cannot be seen as correct and therefore looking at all explanations provides us with the best explanation of a particular behaviour. This has led to a more holistic approach to treatment which has higher effectiveness and lower relapse rates. For example, research by March et al (2007) found that, after 36 weeks of treatment, improvement for depression after CBT was 81% , antidepressants 81, and 86% for a combination of CBT and antidepressants.

Answer 76

It is acknowledged by many psychologists that the likelihood that a behaviour has a purely reductionist explanation is low. The complexity involved in every behaviour means that such explanations are rarely accepted as sufficient - although they are nevertheless often used because of the practical applications that can be generated.

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