Issues and Debates

Question 1

Cultural bias

Answer 1

tendency to judge all people in terms of your own cultural assumptions

cultural differences are ignored/distorted due to majority research done in USA

psychologists claim their findings are universal when they only apply to particular group being studied

Question 2

Ethnocentrism

Answer 2

use of your own cultural group as a base for judgments about other groups

beliefs, customs, behaviours of own group as superior and others deviant

Question 3

Give an example of ethnocentrism/cultural bias

Answer 3

Ainsworth- 66% American infants securely attached due to sensitive parenting
Desirable attachment type for future development

Van Izjendoorn found differing roles in other cultures
lead to these cultures being seen as inferior in child rearing practices

Question 4

What is the opposite of ethnocentrism?

Answer 4

Cultural relativism
there is no universal standard to behaviour
behaviour cannot be judged properly unless in the context of the culture of where the behaviour originated from

Question 5

What is an etic approach ?

Answer 5

looks at behaviour from outside of a given culture to describe those behaviours that are universal

Question 6

What is an emic approach?

Answer 6

looks at behaviour from within the certain cultures and describes behaviours that are specific to that culture

Question 7

Evaluate cultural bias

Answer 7

-scientifically justifies denying people from certain cultural groups opportunities in society
EG US army IQ test before WW1 White American top and African-americans bottom of scale for mental age

+ways to reduce ethnocentrism- encouraging indigenous psychologies (emic)- Afrocentrism- a movement suggests African theories must express African values - growing awareness

-cultural relativism assumes there is no universal behaviour eg happiness and disgust is the same, interactional synchrony is universal- behaviour requires study on universal and variation

+emic and etic approaches can be combined- avoid cultural bias using indigenous researchers BUSS- whether mate preference is universal- 3 local researchers in each of 37 cultures- cross-cultural research without ignoring norms and values of different cultures

Question 8

Universality

Answer 8

any characteristics, traits or behaviours of humans that can be applied to all

inevitable bias as psychologists have beliefs influenced by their social and historical context

Question 9

Bias

Answer 9

tendency to have unbalanced/unfair views
exaggerating/ignoring differences between groups of people

Question 10

What is gender bias?

Answer 10

differences between males and females are exaggerated or ignored

Question 11

What is andocentrism?

Answer 11

most psychologists are male so represent a male world-view

tendency to focus on men and neglect/exclude women

Question 12

Alpha bias

Answer 12

exaggerate differences between men and women
enhance/undervalue (usually women) members of either sex

Question 13

Give an example of alpha bias

Answer 13

Freuds theory of psychosexual stages- phallic stage- oedipus complex (castration anxiety)- helps drive their moral development (superego).

Females seen as inferior to males due to penis envy, as they cannot experience castration anxiety

women cannot undergo same oedious complex= seen as morally inferior to men

Question 14

What is beta bias?

Answer 14

ignores/minimises differences between genders

theories ignore questions about lives of women and assume what is true to men must also be true to women

Question 15

Give an example of beta bias

Answer 15

Fight or flight response
early research with male animals (preferred to females as female hormones fluctuate)- assumed to be a universal response to threat

Taylor- females respond differently with a “tend and befriend” response where fight or flight is inhibited - attention shifted to caring for offspring and forming defensive networks with other females

Question 16

Evaluate gender bias

Answer 16

+scientifically justifies denying women opportunities in society - lack of female researchers=female concerns neglected, inaccurate assumptions, validated discrimination at work- damaging effects on women’s lives

-research methods used to observes both genders are biased, lab based disadvantages women as shows little about outside experiences- researcher found men effective leaders in labs vs real-life= both effective= alpha bias

+tackle alpha bias via “reverse alpha bias”, emphasising value of women by showing areas they outperform men, research= more attentive, flexible and organised- challenges stereotype that males better

Question 17

What is free will?

Answer 17

we have power to consciously control and make choices about our thoughts and behaviours

advocated by Humanistic Psychologists

Question 18

Give a link to free will

Answer 18

Maslow’s self-actualisation- believed that everyone is capable of achieving full potential if they choose to do sp, some choose not to be motivated despite their needs being fulfilled

Question 19

Evaluate free will

Answer 19

-impossible to test, non-physical phenomenon, if measurement becomes possible scientific discipline may resolve debate

+everyday experience “gives impression” that we are exercising free will, face validity

+even if we don’t have free will, we can have +ve impact upon behaviour by resisting pressures to conform

-criticising evidence- brain activity determines choices, press button or not - 10 secs before ppts consciously aware of making decision, determined by brain before aware

Question 20

What is determinism?

Answer 20

we do not have conscious control over our thoughts and behaviour

Question 21

Hard determinism

Answer 21

everything that we think or do is dictated by internal/external forces that we cannot consciously control

compatible with the aims of science (causal explanations)

Question 22

Soft determinism

Answer 22

version of determinism that allows for some element of free will- does not criticise the freedom we have to make conscious decisions in everyday life

Cognitive approach- we have recurring thoughts that we can’t control but can filter them out

Question 23

Biological determinism

Answer 23

biological approach- behaviour is caused by biological (genetic, hormonal, evolutionary) influences that we cannot control

Question 24

Give an example of biological determinism

Answer 24

genetic explanations of OCD and SZ
inherited via genes from relatives
1st degree= more likely to develop disorder eg 10% chance OCD vs 2% general pop
SZ more likely in MZ (40%) than DZ (7%) caused by inborn factors

Question 25

Environmental determinism

Answer 25

behaviour is caused by features of the environment (reward/punishment) that we cannot control advocated by behaviourist approach

Question 26

give an example of environmental determinism

Answer 26

Bandura's bobo doll study children observe aggressive adults hitting, kicking and shouting at doll when put in a room with bobo they imitate aggression when not shown aggressive behaviour- less likely what we see in environment determines aggression

Question 27

Psychic determinism

Answer 27

behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts that we cannot control advocated by psychodynamic approach

Question 28

Give an example of psychic determinism

Answer 28

Tripartite personality unconscious conflicts between id (pleasure principle) and superego (morality) that ego mediates between strength of each determines behaviour id=impulsive aggressive and superego= aggression is morally right or not ego= aggression is carried out or not

Question 29

what is the scientific emphasis on causal explanations

Answer 29

scientists can predict/control events in future via lab exp is "ideal" allows control of extraneous variables to establish cause and effect eg understand cause of mental illnesses to prevent/treat them

Question 30

Evaluate determinism

Answer 30

+prac apps- sz caused by over transmission of dopamine= antipsychotic medication to block D2 receptors, reduce symptoms - scientists control events -bio and envt= neither intel/extnl on own explain all behaviour- MZ twins conc rates 40% (100% genes) and 7% DZ (50% genes), not just genes but plays key role so envy not sole factor -incompatible with legal system- role of MAOA gene - pre-programmed to be aggressive and no free will- wrong for legal system to find those responsible if not conscious control +evidence- brain activity determines choices, press button or not - 10 secs before ppts consciously aware of making decision, determined by brain before aware

Question 31

What is the middle ground of the free will determinism debate?

Answer 31

Interactionist approach SLT "soft determinism" influenced by envtl factors outside of control eg watching aggressive role models have cognitive element eg meditational processes- choose what to attend to and when to perform behaviours

Question 32

Give an example of the interactional approach

Answer 32

aggression in media people watch violent games/films- more likely to be aggressive due to observational learning (determinist) but affected by cog processes (what choose to pay attention to, whether believe appropriate/role model)- free will

Question 33

What is the argument of the nature-nurture debate?

Answer 33

whether a persons development is mainly due to their genes or environmental influences

Question 34

The nature side of the debate

Answer 34

Nativists argue that behaviour is innate due to heredity Genetic inheritance- using family, twin, adoption studies Evolutionary approach- any adaptive behaviour is naturally selected, passed to offspring

Question 35

Give an example of the nature side of the debate

Answer 35

Joseph- average concordance rates for MZ twins is 40%, DZ twins is 7% in SZ studies significant gene component

Question 36

Evaluate the nature side of the debate

Answer 36

impossible to separate out influence of nurture, MZ twins high due to sharing more genes or treated similarly Negative real-life implication of social control- brain scans, genetic testing to identify those at risk eg MAOA gene, monitor their behaviour to prevent harm

Question 37

What is the nurture side of the debate?

Answer 37

Empiricists argue that mind is a blank slate at birth- learning and experience influences behaviour Key part of behaviourist approach and SLT

Question 38

Give an example of the nurture side of the debate

Answer 38

2 process model of phobias- learned via association of a natural stimulus with unconditioned provoking fear response Little Albert's fear of furry white objects due to association of loud bang with rat reinforced via negative reinforcement (flight behaviours)

Question 39

Evaluate the nurture side of the debate

Answer 39

debate complicated by nurture affecting nature, brain scans- plasticity (learning influences structure of brains), MRI scans of London taxi drivers argued that nature affects nurture- child genetically aggressive, aggressive response in others, part of child's environment and affect development child grows up- seek experiences that suit genes eg natural talent for music so chooses musical friends= genes shape environment

Question 40

What is the modern view of the nature-nurture debate?

Answer 40

impossible to answer and makes little sense to separate the two focus changed to - relative importance of hereditary and environment for behaviour Interactionist approach- combination of both nature and nurture and how they interact Diathesis-stress model- mental illnesses= inherit vulnerability then triggered by event of stress= nature and nurture onset of illness

Question 41

Evaluate the interactionist view of nature and nurture debate

Answer 41

Tienari- adopted with SZ bio mum/control no risk- higher rate in bio (nature), healthy protects (nurture), interact to dictate developing SZ- nature=potential, nurture= trigger unclear how nature and nurture react, underlying vulnerability and stress increases chances but do not understand mechanisms to produce effect

Question 42

Reductionism

Answer 42

breaking complex behaviours down into more simple components complex phenomenas best understood in simpler level of explanation

Question 43

What is the highest level of explanation (reductionism)?

Answer 43

Social and cultural explanations- broad, general and holistic how wider social/cultural groups affect behaviour

Question 44

What is the middle level of explanation (reductionism)?

Answer 44

Psychological- more specific explained in cognitive processes

Question 45

What is the lowest level of explanation (reductionism)?

Answer 45

Biological- most precise, simplest, reductionist brain structure, neurochemistry hormones and genetic

Question 46

Give an example of levels of explanations

Answer 46

Memory social level- cultural expectations affect what we remember psychological level- types of memory eg episodic, semantic, procedural biological level- brain stores memories eg hippocampus and neurotransmitters involved

Question 47

What is biological reductionism?

Answer 47

attempts to explain behaviour at the lowest level in terms of brain, neurochemistry, hormones and genetics eg animals made up of auto,s so human behaviour explainable at this level

Question 48

Give an example of biological reductionism

Answer 48

Aggression is caused by faulty MAOA genes impacting transmission of serotonin and amygdala not inhibited= impulsive aggression EG Brunner guilty of rape and arson

Question 49

What is environmental reductionism?

Answer 49

explains behaviour in terms of stimulus response links that have learned through experience

Question 50

Give an example of environmental reductionism

Answer 50

SZ is caused by family dysfunction from environment raised in eg double bind messages from parents = paranoid delusions and hallucinations causes relapse and ignores dopamine as a cause

Question 51

Evaluate reductionism

Answer 51

+scientific- break behaviours down into constituent parts= isolate and control in lab experiments/ record observations eg behavioural categories +prac apps- reduce SZ down to dopamine led to drug therapies (antipsychotics)- reduce to stimulus response = systematic desensitisation -lower explanations do not explain many behaviours- level of gene and not social context so meaning is lost eg pointing finger with no meaning as to why

Question 52

Holism as the other side of the reductionist debate

Answer 52

perceiving complex behaviours as a whole including all its constituent parts interacting as one

Question 53

Give an example of holism

Answer 53

Obedience- all factors examined to fully understand explained by authoritarian personality, situational factors eg location, proximity, uniform Milgrams ppts obeyed due to agentic state by auth figure in environment other ppts had internal locus of control

Question 54

Evaluate holism

Answer 54

+some behaviours can only be understood with higher level of explanation, Asch with social context not individual members - some rewire complete of full context -too vague and unscientific eg range of factors in depression, doesn't establish which is more influential - humanistic is loose set of concepts