Psychopathology Flashcards
(32 cards)
Describe and evaluate statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality
-based on the normal distribution curve
-further away from mean=more abnormal
-2.5% on either side of mean=abnormal
-5% population abnormal
-1%= schizophrenia 2%=OCD
Criticism= subjective, individuals disagree on ‘cut-off’ point
Difficulty sleeping in depression- either 80% or 90% less, not objective
Strength= clear to use, clinicians can distinguish what is abnormal for diagnosis’
Patient assessments have measurement of severity compared to majority, useful part of assessment
-defines desirable behaviours as abnormal, unable to distinguish, few have IQ over 150, should only identify those in need of diagnosis and treatment
-culturally biased, statistically frequent in one culture not in other, hearing voices rare and common, should be consistent
Describe failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality
An inability to carry out daily tasks
4 ways- DUMI
Distress- crying uncontrollably for no obvious reason
Unpredictable behaviour- aggressive then calm
Maladaptive behaviour- physically bad, makes condition worse (not eating)
Irrational behaviour- doesn’t make sense to others eg OCD compulsions
Evaluate failure to function adequately
Doesn’t always indicate abnormality, can be due to external factors rather than themselves (supporting a family- economic climate), environmental factors rather than abnormality
Tries to include patient perspective, patient experience is important, level of distress is considered, useful at assessing abnormality
mental disorders not always prevents person from functioning, some live normal lives, anorexics manage without showing irritable behaviour, definition wouldn’t say abnormal but people would
culturally biased, behaviour doesn’t make sense to another, eg African Caribbean 8x likely to have SZ, white psychiatrists say cultural differences irrational
Describe deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality
Jahoda’s ideal criteria (ARRMSS) more you are lacking, more abnormal
Autonomy- independent+ make decisions
Resistance to stress- coping mechanisms
Reality- perception of what is real or not
Mastery of environment- ability to adapt to new environments
Self attitudes- good self esteem
Self actualisation- being motivated to achieve
Evaluate deviation from ideal mental health
Positive perspective on mental health
Focuses on desirable behaviours, criteria aspiring to achieve to be psychologically healthy, useful for those trying to improve
Culturally biased, limited to one culture, reflects Western individualist (UK) not collectivist (China), whole cultures seen as abnormal
too idealistic, criteria for optimal living is high, Maslow- only few reach self-actualisation
subjective judgement of who’s lacking, left to individualist psychiatrists to judge deviation, low reliability
What is the behaviourist approach to explaining phobias?
Two-process model, phobias are a learned behaviour
Classical conditioning- association, development, neutral stimulus with a negative experience to create phobia
Little Albert- UCS (loud noise) = UCR(fear)
UCS(loud noise) + NS(rat) = UCR(fear)
CS(rat) = CR(fear)
Stimulus generalisation- afraid of similar objects
Operant conditioning- maintenance
Phobias negatively reinforced= flight behaviours, reduces anxiety, encourages flight response again
Positively reinforced- comfort from a parent encourages behaviour
Evaluate the behaviourist approach to explaining phobias
Doesn’t provide a complete explanation for all phobias
Underlying evolutionary component
Fear of darks/heights
More than just simple conditioning
prac apps, SD successful 75% see improved symptoms, useful in developing treatments
reductionist, ignores biological, many have phobia despite not having bad experience, limited
environmentally deterministic, phobias caused by unconscious, programmed by environment, removes blame
Explain the two cognitive explanations of depression
Depression is due to faulty thought processes
Beck’s negative triad- schema of perception
Self- “I am useless”
World- “Everyone thinks I’m useless”
Future- “I will always be useless”
Ellis’ ABC Model
Activating event- someone dying
Belief- rational “I will always remember them”, irrational “I didn’t see them enough”
Consequences- emotion, rational= motivation, irrational= guilt+withdrawal
Evaluate cognitive explanations of depression
Practical applications, CBT is effective, March et al 81% effective, useful in developing treatments
Scientific, observable and measured behaviour, Clark and Beck ‘cognitive vulnerability’ accurately predicts who is most vulnerable to depression, empirical evidence
seen as inhumane, depression due to persons thinking which they control, puts blame on patient
negative beliefs not always irrational, some have disordered environments eg abusive, may be more helpful to change situation
struggle to establish cause and effect, irrational thinking effect not cause, develop negative thinking due to depression, misleading
Explain systematic desensitisation as a behavioural treatment of phobias
Phobias are learned, counter condition to break association
Reciprocal inhibition- cannot be calm and anxious at the same time
1- therapist discusses baseline eg pic of object
2- relaxation techniques
3- develop anxiety hierarchy from least to worst feared
4- gradually expose to stimulus ensuring patient is relaxed before moving on
5- fear thermometer to assess anxiety levels
Evaluate systematic desensitisation as a behavioural treatment of phobias
Effective, extremely successful therapy, McGrath 75% patients showed improvement in symptoms, client is in control so works
Not effective for all phobias, underlying evolutionary component not easily treated, fear of dark, limited to treating specific types
if successful, reduces unnecessary healthcare costs, £22.5b per year NHS
ethical issues, asking to confront major fear lacks protection from harm
is not as traumatic as flooding, acceptable treatment
Explain cognitive behavioural therapy as a cognitive treatment of depression
1) Challenges faulty thought processes and replaces with more positive ones
2)Therapist will discuss the patient’s ABC
A= cause of depression is discussed eg poor grades
B= “I am not good at psychology”
C= lack of motivation to try
3)Therapist disputes beliefs eg looks at grades and challenges beliefs
4)Effect- discussion of how beliefs lead to symptoms and how positive beliefs make them feel
5)Given homework- keep a diary and identify thought+ consequence , reinforcing positive thoughts
6)Practice will make thoughts automatic and have long lasting effects
Evaluate CBT as a cognitive treatment of depression
Does not have side effects unlike biological treatments
Antidepressants cause indigestion/blurred vision
Effective without drawbacks of drug therapy
Impractical, engage with hard work, disrupts patient’s lives, drugs reduce symptoms with no hard work so patients favour drugs
81% effective March et al
beneficial for economy, £22.5b costs of mental health issues, CBT reduces unnecessary costs if successful
Explain flooding as a behavioural treatment of phobias (6)
Counter conditioning and reciprocal inhibition
1- teach relaxation techniques
2- fully confront fear by immersing patient in a room with phobic stimulus
3- ensure no escape- makes phobia worse if escape due to negative reinforcement
4- anxiety will rise until it reaches a ceiling as body is physically exhausted
5- anxiety falls and realises there are no negative consequences so association becomes extinct
Evaluate flooding as a behavioural treatment of phobias
Cost effective, relatively cheap, one session vs SD with multiple sessions, many therapists favour for this reason
Ethical issues, confronting extreme aspect of anxiety, spider crawling on person is inappropriate, against ethical COC
as effective as SD of stuck with it for full session, Choy= more effective
relaxation not always necessary, more to do with exposure, research says psychotherapy as effective as SD
What is the genetic explanation of OCD?
Due to faulty genes
Inherited from parents (genotype)
10% chance if first degree relative has
General population is 2%
Polygenic- multiple genes
230 candidate genes- gene 9
Phenotype- whether gene is expressed as OCD depends on stressors in environment (diathesis-stress model)
What is the neural explanation as biological explanations of OCD?
Brain function
1)low functioning of lateral frontal lobes
Poor decision making+ irrational thoughts eg obsessions
2)high functioning of basal ganglia (movement)
Repetitive actions eg compulsions
3)high functioning of parahippocampal gyrus = overthinking (obsessions)
Levels of neurotransmitters
1)low serotonin transmission- poor mood/emotion, if reuptake too readily then obsessions
2)high dopamine transmission- repetitive movements eg compulsions
3)low GABA- anxiety- overthinking
What is the biological treatment for OCD?
Drug treatments to change neurotransmitter levels
Low serotonin= SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitions)
Block reuptake channels + increase serotonin in synapse
More serotonin binds to receptors- reduce obsessive thoughts + improves mood
Low GABA- BZs (benzodiazepines) increases GABA
GABA is off switch for nervous system
More GABA- less anxious- reduces obsessive thoughts
Evaluate the biological treatment of OCD
Practical, drug therapy is non-disruptive to lives, reduces lives with no engagement like CBT, doctors and patients favour for this reason
However, can have side effects eg indigestion
Only treats symptoms not cause, short term not lasting cure, patients relapse in weeks after meds stop, CBT may be more appropriate in long term
SSRIs more effective than placebo, reduced symptoms of OCD
beneficial as NHS costs 22.5b a year so reduces if no. of days sick reduced
Evaluate the genetic explanations for OCD
Twin studies, Nestadt, 68% MZ twins shared OCD compared to 31% of DZ twins, more genes we share, higher chance of getting OCD
Biologically reductionist, reduces mental health down to genes, ignores environmental factors, concordance rates high in MZ but not 100% so environment may play a part, too simplistic
Evaluate neural explanations for OCD
Practical applications, drug therapies that correct neurotransmitter imbalances, Soomro- SSRIs more effective than placebos, useful in developing treatments effective for OCD
issue of causation, hard to establish if neurotransmitter imbalances are due to causes of OCD or symptoms, hard to build before and after picture
What are the emotional characteristics of phobias?
Anxiety- unpleasant state of high arousal (feelings of distress)
Unreasonable emotional response- fear that is disproportionate to actual danger
What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias?
Irrational beliefs- not logical, resistant to rational arguments
Selective attention- difficult to focus attention away from phobic stimulus
What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?
Avoidance- going out of the way to avoid the phobic stimulus to reduce anxiety
Panicking- crying, screaming, running away
