Issues And Debates

Question 1

Define Gender bias

Answer 1

When the researchers stereotypical views about males and females affect their theoretical assumptions

Question 2

Define Universality

Answer 2

The argument that certain observed behaviours apply to all humans, regardless of differences in gender, biology or cultural background

Question 3

Define Androcentrism with an example from a topic in psychology

Answer 3

Androcentrism refers to theories which are focused on males
For example, Milgram used a male sample and assumed the results would apply equally to females

Question 4

Define Gynocentrism with an example from a topic of psychology

Answer 4

Refers to theories which are based on females
For example, Moscovici used a full female sample when investigating the influence of the minority influence

Question 5

Define Alpha bias with an example from a topic of psychology

Answer 5

Alpha Bias refers to theories which exaggerate differences between males and females.
For example, the evolutionary theory emphasises differences in what each gender looks for in a partner, with males looking for youth and females looking for wealth

Question 6

Define Beta bias with an example from a topic in psychology

Answer 6

Beta bias refers to theories which ignore or minimise differences between males and females
For example, the fight or flight response was carried out with male animals and was assumed to not be a problem to generalise to Both sexes but Taylor et al found female animals adopt a “tend and befriend” response in stressful situations

Question 7

What are the 4 AO3 points for gender bias?

Answer 7

• results could be affected affected by institutional sexism
• difficult to view completely objectively
  + solve by adopting feminist approach
• beta bias argues men and women to be the same (draws attention away from the womens needs)

Question 8

Define culture bias

Answer 8

The tendency to judge people in terms of one’s own cultural assumptions

Question 9

Define ethnocentrism with an example of a topic from psychology

Answer 9

Ethnocentrism refers to seeing the world only from one’s own cultural perspective and believing this one perspective is normal and correct
For example, Ainsworth’s strange situations outlined attachment type in relation to American culture and generalised the same meaning of attachment type to other cultures

Question 10

Define cultural relativism

Answer 10

Cultural relativism insists that behaviour can be properly understood online if the cultural context in which it occurred is taken into consideration

Question 11

Define the Emic approach

Answer 11

Research done on a single culture to understand within a local context which is not then generalised to other cultures

Question 12

Define the Etic approach

Answer 12

Research done across multiple cultures to apply universally

Question 13

Define imposed Etic

Answer 13

Imposing Judgements from one culture onto another

Question 14

What are the AO3 points for cultural bias?

Answer 14

+ recognise when it occurs (66% of research is American, improve this by selecting variety of cultures
- significant real world effects - US army IQ test
+ led to use of indigenous researchers
- traditional distinctions no longer relevant (Takano and Osaka)

Question 15

Define Free will with an example from a topic of psychology

Answer 15

Free will is the view that people can control their. Behaviour so can override biological and environmental influences
For example, CBT is used to treat addiction which suggests that we have free will over our cognitive biases

Question 16

Define determinism

Answer 16

The view that free will is an illusion and our behaviour is governed by internal or external forces

Question 17

Define hard determinism

Answer 17

Forces outside our control govern our behaviour so is incompatible with free will

Question 18

Define soft determinism with an example from a topic in psychology

Answer 18

Our behaviour is constrained by the environment or genetic makeup to an extent and that there is an element of free will.
For example, SLT suggests behaviour is learned through reinforcement but also acknowledges cognitive processes that moderate the response

Question 19

Define Biological determinism with an example from a topic in psychology

Answer 19

Biological determinism is the idea that all human behaviour is innate and determined by genes
For example, Nestadt suggests OCD is genetic with individuals being 5x more likely to suffer from OCD if they have a first degree relative with the condition

Question 20

Define environmental determinism with an example from a topic in psychology

Answer 20

Behaviour is caused by forces outside the individual
For example, operant conditioning suggests that behaviour is learned through reinforcement

Question 21

Define psychic determinism with an example from a topic in psychology

Answer 21

Behaviour is a result of childhood experiences and innate drives
For example, Freuds psychodynamic theory

Question 22

What are the AO3 points for Free will and determinism

Answer 22

+ determinism is consistent with the aims of science
+ free will has high face validity
- biological determinism not supported by strong research - twin studies not 100% concordance rate
- oversimplifies human behaviour

Question 23

Outline the nature vs nurture debate

Answer 23

The argument that behaviour is governed by nature and nurture. The debate is about the relative contribution of each of these influences

Question 24

Define nature with an example from a topic of psychology

Answer 24

The view that behaviour is the product of innate biological or genetic factors
For example, the genetic explanation for OCD suggests that individuals inherit OCD due to a faulty COMT / SERT gene

Question 25

Define nurture with an example from a topic of psychology

Answer 25

View that we learn behaviour from our environment and experience For example, classical conditioning suggests that a baby forms an attachment with the mum since it forms an association between the mum and food which produces a response of pleasure (cupboard love)

Question 26

Define the interactionist approach (nature vs nurture) with an example from a topic of psychology

Answer 26

The view that nature and nurture work together to shape human behaviour For example, the diathesis stress model in schizophrenia

Question 27

What are the AO3 points for the nature vs nurture debate?

Answer 27

- nurture affects nature (maguire et al Taxi driver brain size) - impossible to study nature and nurture separately (twin studies) - nature effects nurture (selection of environments suitable for their nature) - oversimplistic to favour one side of the debate

Question 28

Outline levels of explanation

Answer 28

Levels of explanation suggests there are different ways of viewing the same phenomenon with the lowest level focusing on basic components (reductionist) the middle being psychological and the highest level focusing on cultural and social explanations (holism)

Question 29

Define reductionism

Answer 29

Refers to the belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into simpler components

Question 30

Define biological reductionism with an example from a topic of psychology

Answer 30

Reduced behaviour to a physical level explaining in terms of neurons neurotransmitters and hormones For example, the neural explanation to OCD suggests OCD is caused by low levels of serotonin and high levels of dopamine

Question 31

Define environmental reductionism with an example from a topic of psychology

Answer 31

Reduces behaviour to a series of stimulus and response chains For example, phobias are acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning

Question 32

Define Holism with an example from a topic in psychology

Answer 32

Holism is the idea that human behaviour should be viewed as a whole integrated experience not separate parts For example, humanistic psychology argues that human react to stimuli as an organised whole rather than a series of SR links

Question 33

Define the Idiographic approach with an example from a topic in psychology

Answer 33

The idiographic approach focused on the individual and emphasises the unique personal experience of human beings while not seeking to develop general laws For example, the case study of KF who was in a motorbike accident and suffered damage to his phonological loop but not his VSS in his STM

Question 34

What are the different types of idiographic research

Answer 34

1. Case studies 2. Unstructured interviews / Thematic analysis

Question 35

Define the nomothetic approach with an example from a topic of psychology

Answer 35

The Nomothetic approach is the study of large groups of people to establish general laws to apply across any given population For example, behaviourists conducted experiments on animals to establish laws of learning to apply to humans

Question 36

What are the different nomothetic research types?

Answer 36

Experiments Correlational research Psychometric testing (personality)

Question 37

What are the AO3 points for the Nomothetic and Idiographic debate

Answer 37

+ Nomothetic provides a more precise and scientific explanation than Idiographic - Idiographic lacks scientific rigour and is prone to subjectivity + Nomothetic is useful for predicting and controlling behaviour (treatment) - Nomothetic may prevent theories being made since statistics tell us little about the experience of a disorder

Question 38

Define ethical implications

Answer 38

Reference to the consequence of psychological research on the rights of other people in a wider context

Question 39

Define social sensitivity

Answer 39

Social implication of the group studied such as change to the way the group is treated

Question 40

What are the 4 things researchers should be aware of when conducting research?

Answer 40

1. The research question 2. The methodology used 3. Institutional context 4. Interpretation and application of findings

Question 41

Outline how Bowlbys monotropic theory can be seen as having ethical implications and being socially sensitive

Answer 41

Ethical implication- encourage view that women’s place is at home looking after child so mother may feel guilty returning to work after childbirth Socially sensitive- mother may be coerced to stay at home and look after her children

Question 42

What are the AO3 points for ethical implications of research?

Answer 42

- can lead to prejudice (sterilisation of feeble minded in US 1930s) - raises question on whether Socially sensitive research should be conducted at all + may be beneficial (Young children improvement in EWT) - Social sensitivity may be a result of Researcher Bias (research question)