Relationships Flashcards
(123 cards)
1
Q
Outline what is meant by human reproductive behaviour
A
Any behaviour which relates to opportunities to reproduce and pass on our genes
2
Q
What is meant by sexual selection
A
An evolutionary basis for partner preference
3
Q
Define anisogamy
A
The difference between male and female gametes
4
Q
Define inter sexual selection
A
Selection between the sexes. Strategies one gender uses to select their partner
5
Q
What do women seek in a male partner according to inter sexual selection?
A
Women seek indicators of socioeconomic status
6
Q
What do men prioritise in their partner according to inter sexual selection?
A
Mens prioritise physical appearance which are cues to a woman’s reproductive value
7
Q
What are the evaluation points for inter sexual selection? AO3
A
+ supporting evidence (BUSS)
- social desirability
+ supporting evidence (Clark and Hatfield)
- Face validity
8
Q
Evaluate Buss’ research as supporting evidence for inter sexual selection AO3
A
P: a strength of inter sexual selection is that the here is supporting evidence for the theory
E: for example, Buss conducted a meta analysis including 37 cultures and analysed 10,000 responses to questionnaires asking respondents which factors were important in a sexual partner. Buss found that men valued attractiveness more than women did and that women valued economic status highly
E: this is a strength because evidence provided by Buss supports the theory of inter sexual selection
9
Q
Explain social desirability as a counterpoint to Buss’ study AO3
A
P: a limitation of Buss’ study is that social desirability may have affected female responses
E: for example, females may be less likely to report finding physical attributes attractive as it may be deemed shalow
E: this is a limitation as for atleast the female respondents the findings may not be totally valid
10
Q
Evaluate Clark and Hatfield’s study as supporting evidence for intersexual selection AO3
A
P: a strength of inter sexual selection is that there is supporting evidence
E: for example, Clark and Hatfield sent attractive male and female psychology students around the campus of a university. Asking other students if they would sleep with them tonight. 0% of females agreed but 75% of males agreed
E: this is a strength because it supports female choosiness when selecting a mate and that males opt for a different strategy to ensure reproductive success
11
Q
Explain how inter sexual selection has high face validity AO3
A
P: a strength of inter sexual selection is that it has high face validity
E: for example, the existence of trophy wives and females using cosmetic surgery to appear younger is real world support of the validity of inter sexual selection. Furthermore, men often exaggerate their resources to persuade females to mate with them
E: this is a strength as it provides real world evidence in support of the validity of gender differences in mate choice
12
Q
Explain intra sexual selection as a theory of partner preference
A
Intrasexual selection refers to strategies within a sex, for example competition between males to be selected by a female. This leads to gender dimorphism
13
Q
Define gender dimorphism
A
Different genders looking different due to intrasexual selection, as males are competing, larger animals are at an advantage so males are often 15% larger than females
14
Q
Evaluate research from Buss as a strength of intrasexual selection AO3
A
P: a strength of intersexual selection is that there is supporting evidence
E: for example, Buss found that men are significantly more likely than women to make threats of violence towards others who were perceived to have made sexual advances towards their mate. In contrast, females often used verbal aggression to target and reduce the attractiveness of a competitor in the eye of the male
E: this is a strength as it supports the theory of intra sexual selection and males competing
15
Q
What are the 2 general evaluation points for partner preferences? AO3
A
- cannot explain homosexual relationships
- deterministic
16
Q
Evaluate not being able to explain homosexual preferences as a limitation of evolutionary explanations of partner preference? AO3
A
P: a limitation of sexual selection theory is that it cannot explain partner preferences in homosexual relationships since reproduction isn’t the main aim.
E: for example, Lawson looked at personal ads placed by heterosexual and homosexual men and women describing what they were looking for and offering. They found that preferences of homosexual men and women differ just as they do in heterosexual men and women
E: this is a limitation as men still prioritise physical appearance and women prioritise resources despite not planning on having children
17
Q
Evaluate evolutionary explanations as being deterministic AO3
A
P: a limitation of evolutionary explanations of human reproductive behaviour is that it is deterministic
E: for example, if human reproductive behaviour was driven by purely evolutionary considerations then they would be highly predictable. However, with the widespread use of contraception and couples choosing not to have children suggests we have more control over our own behaviour than suggested by the evolutionary explanation.
Gender difference may stem from cultural traditions rather than evolution such as women being denied economic and political powers might account for their tendency to rely on the security and economic resources provided by men
E: this is a limitation as it shows that mate preferences are the outcome of not only evolutionary influences but cultural too
18
Q
Define parental investment
A
Any investment made by a parent that increases the chances of the offspring surviving
19
Q
Do men have high parental investment and why?
A
Men have low parental investment since they have low paternity confidence and can produce a vast number of offspring in their lifetime.
It makes reproductive sense to mate with as many females as possible to ensure his genes are passed on to
20
Q
Do females have high parental investment and why?
A
Females have high parental investment since they are 100% sure the child is theirs and can only have a maximum ammount of offspring in their lifetime.
So it makes evolutionary sense for women to be choosy since they should only mate with a male who would protect her offspring and pass on her genes
21
Q
What are the 2 evaluation points for parental investment AO3
A
+ supporting research
- not relevant in today society
22
Q
Evaluate supporting research of parental investment AO3
A
P: a strength of the parental investment explanation is that there is supporting research
E: for example, Clark and Hatfield sent an attractive male and female across a university and approached students asking if they would go to bed with them tonight. 75% of men agreed to the request but 0% of the females agreed
E: this is a strength since it supports the idea that women are more choosy than men because of their high investment. While men are more laidback when it comes to casual sex
23
Q
Define self disclosure
A
The sharing of personal information about the self which leads to increased attraction
24
Q
Explain social penetration theory
A
Focuses on the gradual process of revealing your inner self involving the reciprocal exchange of information. One partner reveals personal information, signalling they trust the other person. For the relationship to develop then this must be reciprocated
As each partner discloses more and more they penetrate more into each others lives
25
What is breadth information?
Low risk information which we share with many people
26
What is depth information?
High risk information which we share with few people
27
Outline what is meant by reciprocity of self disclosure
The expectation that when one person discloses any response will be understanding and empathetic and the other person will discloses information
28
What are the evaluation points for self disclosure theory of attraction? AO3
+ research support
- counterpoint correlational
+ practical application
- doesn’t explain online dating
29
Evaluate supporting evidence by Sprecher and Hendrick for self disclosure theory AO3
P: a strength of self disclosure theory is that there is supporting research
E: for example, Sprecher and Hendrick conducted a longitudinal study of mainly white middle class heterosexual dating couples using questionnaires and found strong correlations between measures of satisfaction and reciprocal self disclosure. They found that both men and women who self disclosed and believed their partner did likewise were more satisfied with their relationship than those who didn’t have this exchange
E: this is a strength since evidence from Sprecher and Hendrick supports the claims of self disclosure theory
30
Explain a limitation of Sprecher and Hendricks study being that the evidence is correlational? AO3
P: a limitation of self disclosure theory is that research evidence is correlational
E: for example, Sprecher and Hendricks study doesn’t establish causation
E: this is a limitation as we can’t be certain that self disclosure effects satisfaction and attraction, it could be that attraction makes people more likely to self disclose or that a 3rd factor influences both
31
Explain the practical application of self disclosure theory AO3
P: a strength of self disclosure theory is that it can offer practical applications
E: for example, it can help people who want to improve communication in their relationships and strengthen their romantic bond
E: this is a strength because if less skilled individuals can learn to self discloses effectively then this could lead to benefits in relationships in terms of satisfaction
32
Explain online dating as a limitation of self disclosure theory AO3
P: a limitation of self disclosure theory is that it varies depending on how people have met
E: for example, between 2015 and 2019 32% of relationships started online and since the internet has an anonymous aspect people often reveal more information about themselves, known as boom or bust. This means that relationships can get very intense very quickly (boom) or a lack of true knowledge of the other person is lacking leading to the relationship ending (bust)
E: this is a limitation of self disclosure theory since it does not consider these relationships which start online meaning that a large number of people are not represented
33
What makes an individual physically attractive?
People with symmetrical faces are rated as more attractive since it’s a sign of genetic fitness
34
Outline what is meant by the halo effect
People have preconceived ideas about personality traits which attractive people must have, “what is beautiful is good” so we behave positively towards attractive individuals and they respond positively back, known as a self fulfilling prophecy
35
What are the evaluation points for physical attractiveness? AO3
+ supporting evidence from Eastwick and Finkel
+ supporting evidence from Meltzer
+ supporting evidence for evolutionary processes by Cunningham
36
Evaluate research by Eastwick and Finkel as a strength of physical attractiveness as a factor of attraction in romantic relationships AO3
P: a strength of physical attractiveness as a factor affecting attraction is that there is supporting evidence
E: for example, Eastwick and Finkel aimed to investigate whether physical attractiveness predicts real life partner choice for men and women. They used evidence from speed dating and backed this up with a longitudinal follow up 30 days later. No significant sex difference was found to which judgements of targets physical attractiveness or earning prospects
E: this is a strength because it shows that physical attractiveness does play a part in attraction
37
Evaluate research from Meltzer as support for physical attractiveness AO3
P: a strength of physical attractiveness as a factor affecting attraction is that there is supporting evidence
E: for example, Meltzer found that objective ratings of wives attractiveness were positively related to the husbands satisfaction as the beginning of the marriage and over the first 4 years. Females objective ratings of husbands were not related to wives satisfaction at all
E: this is a strength as it supports the claim that males value physical attractiveness more than women do
38
Evaluate supporting research for evolutionary processes such as Cunningham AO3
P: a strength of the time of physical attractiveness is that there is evidence to support evolutionary processes
E: for example, Cunningham found that female features such as large eyes, prominent cheek bones and small noses were rated as highly attractive by white hispanic and Asian males. Researchers concluded that what is considered attractive is consistent across all societies. Furthermore, facial symmetry is a sign of genetic fitness and therefore perpetuated similarly in all cultures
E: this is a strength because it shows the importance of physical attractiveness on an evolutionary level, if all cultures find the same things attractive then there must be an evolutionary basis
39
Outline the matching hypothesis
The matching hypothesis claims that when people look for a romantic partner they tend to look for someone of similar attractiveness to their own. When choosing a partner the individual assesses their own value and opts for someone of similar ratings to maximise their chances of a successful outcome since it doesn’t make evolutionary sense to attempt someone with a higher rating since the individual risks rejection and the opportunity to reproduce and pass their genes on
40
What are the evaluation points for the matching hypothesis theory? AO3
+ supporting evidence - Murstein
- counterpoint correlational
- contradictory evidence
- cultural bias
41
Evaluate supporting research from Murstein for the matching hypothesis
P: a strength of the matching hypothesis is that there is supporting evidence
E: for example, Murstein aimed to find out if both partners were perceived as matched for physical attractiveness. He photographed both partners in several romantic relationships and each partner was scored for their physical attractiveness by independent judges using a 5 point scale. Murstein found that real life couples received similar ratings, significantly more alike then ratings given to fake couples
E: this is a strength as Mursteins study supports the matching hypothesis theory in that people are likely to form relationships with those who are equally attractive
42
Evaluate Mursteins study in terms of findings being correlational AO3
P: a limitation of Mursteins study is that it does not establish cause and effect
E: for example, Mursteins study establishes a positive correlation between the ratings of the photographs for real couples. The study suggests that people form relationships with people of similar ratings to themselves but it cannot prove that this is the only reason the relationship started
E: this is a limitation since people come to a relationship offering multiple desirable characteristics and physical attractiveness if just one of them. A person may compensate for a lack of physical attractiveness with other desirable characteristics, this tendency is called complex matching
43
Evaluate contradictory evidence for the matching hypothesis by Taylor et al AO3
P: a limitation of the matching hypothesis is that there is contradictory evidence
E: for example, Taylor studied activity logs of popular online dating sites and found that online daters sought meetings with potential partners who were more physically attractive than themselves, contradicting the matching hypothesis. Finding an overall preference for more physically attractive partners
E: this is a limitation because it suggests that people don’t take into account their own physical attractiveness, aiming for someone more desirable than themselves
44
Evaluate cultural bias in the matching hypothesis AO3
P: a limitation of the matching hypothesis is that it suffers from cultural bias
E: for example, matching for looks may be important in individualistic cultures where couples are voluntary and can be temporary. But in collectivist cultures where relationships are arranged and viewed as permanent, greater importance is placed on economic considerations and family alliances
E: this is a limitation because the matching hypothesis may be better at explaining relationship in individualistic rather than collectivist cultures
45
What are the 3 filters in filter theory?
1. Demography
2. Attitudes
3. Needs
46
Outline what is meant by demography in filter theory
Demography refers to a range of factors which influence the chances of potential partners meeting such as geographical location, social class, level of education and religion. We find these individuals more attractive since we have more in common with them and are more likely to encounter these people than people who live further away
47
Outline what is meant by similarity of attitudes in filter theory
Partners will often share important beliefs and values, individuals can weigh whether to persist with the relationship through disclosure. Similarity of attitudes is most important in the first 18 months of a relationship
48
Outline what is meant by complementarity of needs in filter theory
After 18 months the most important part of a relationship is partners being able to meet each others needs. People who have different needs like each other since they can provide each other with mutual satisfaction of these opposed needs. Complimentary is attractive since it gives two romantic partners the feeling that together they form a whole
49
What are the evaluation points for filter theory? AO3
+ supporting evidence by Kerchoff and Davis
+ practical application in avoiding relationships which won’t work
- direction of causality may be wrong
- role of filters has changed over time
50
Evaluate supporting research by Kerchoff and Davis for filter theory AO3
P: a strength of filter theory is that there is supporting evidence
E: for example, Kerchoff and Davis carried out a longitudinal study of dating couples. Both partners in the couple completed questionnaires that assessed 2 main factors, similarity of attitudes and complementary of needs. Relationship closeness was measured using a questionnaire 7 months later. It was found that closeness was associated with similarity of values but only for couples who had been together less than 18 months, for longer term couples complementarity of needs predicted closeness
E: this is a strength since it supports the idea that similarity of attitudes is important in early stages and that in long term couples complementarity is important as suggested by filter theory
51
Evaluate practical applications of filter theory AO3
P: a strength of filter theory is that the filtering process has practical applications
E: for example, it allows people to make predictions about future relationships and avoid investing in a relationship which won’t work. Based on these exchanges participants may decided to continue with a relationship or decide that it will not work
E: this is a strength because individuals may end a relationship before becoming too emotionally involved with the other person so my prevent suffering emotionally if they were to break up further down the line
52
Explain how direction of causality is a limitation of filter theory AO3
P: a limitation of filter theory is that there is evidence that the direction of causality may be wrong
E: for example, Baldini et al carried out a longitudinal study of married couples and found that similarities between the spouses increased over a 14 year period. So it could be that emotional convergence appears which means partners become more similar over time
E: this is a limitation because rather than partners being alike as filter theory suggests it could be that partners become more alike and align their attitudes with each others
53
How have the role of filters changed over time? AO3
P: a limitation of filter theory is that the role of filters has changed over time
E: for example, in terms of social demography, online dating apps have increased the field of available partners, meaning that location is no longer important in meeting a potential partner. Furthermore, those who use dating apps may give more importance to the potential partners physical attractiveness than their similarity of attitudes
E: this is a limitation because it suggests that key concepts of filter theory are out dated so lack temporal validity
54
What is social exchange theory split into?
1. Rewards, costs and profits
2. Comparison level
3. Comparison level of alternatives
4. Stages of relationship development
55
What is meant by rewards, costs and profits in social exchange theory?
Rewards are favourable outcomes
Costs are what people put into a relationship (time money emotional strain)
Profits is rewards - costs
56
What is makes a relationship satisfying in social exchange theory?
Individuals are more satisfied if they get more out of a relationship than they put into
57
What is meant by comparison level?
CL is the amount of reward you believe you deserve to get in a relationship. This can be influenced by previous relationships and social norms. Someone with good previous relationships will have a high CL and have high expectations in future relationships whereas someone with a low self esteem might settle for a small profit or even a loss from a relationship
58
What is meant by comparison level of alternatives?
CLA refers to whether we believe we could gain greater rewards and fewer costs from another relationship. Social exchange theory predicts that we only stay in a relationship if we believe it is more rewarding than alternatives
59
What are the 4 stages of relationship development?
1. Sampling stage
2. Bargaining stage
3. Commitment stage
4. Institutionalisation stage
60
Outline the sampling stage of SET
We explore rewards and costs by experimenting with them in our own relationships or observing others
61
Outline what is meant by the bargaining stage in SET
This marks the beginning of a relationship, when romantic partners start exchanging rewards and costs, negotiating and identifying what is most profitable
62
Outline what is meant by the commitment stage in SET
As time goes on the sources of costs and rewards become more predictable and the relationship becomes more stable as the rewards increase and costs decrease
63
Outline what is meant by the institutionalisation stage in SET
The partners have now settled down because the norms of the relationship are now established
64
What are the evaluation points of Social exchange theory? AO3
+ supporting evidence from
Sprecher
+ can explain individual differences
- confusion of what constitutes a cost and benefit within a relationship
- culturally bias
65
Evaluate supporting evidence by Sprecher for Social exchange theory AO3
P: a strength of Social exchange theory is supporting research
E: for example, Sprecher conducted a longitudinal study of 101 dating couples from a US university and found that the factors most highly associated with relationship commitment was CLA. The study showed that if CLA was high then commitment to the relationship was low for both genders
E: this is a strength since it suggests that those with high CLA are less committed and those who are satisfied are more likely to devalue CLA
66
Evaluate confusion of what constitutes a reward and cost as a limitation of SET AO3
P: a limitation of social exchange theory is the confusion of what constitutes a cost and benefit within a relationship
E: for example, what one person believes to be rewarding the other may find it punishing (constant praise / irritating). In addition what people see as a benefit at one stage may be seen as a cost later.
E: this is a limitation because this suggests that it is difficult to classify all events in simple terms such as costs and benefits
67
How does SET explain individual differences? AO3
P: a strength of social exchange theory is that it can explain individual differences
E: for example, individuals have different perceptions of how beneficial their current relationship is due to differing CLA. SET explains why some people in abusive relationships may stay since the cost of leaving (fear) outweighs the cost of staying (low self esteem)
E: this is a strength since it explains why some people maintain a relationship even when the benefits or positive feelings aren’t present
68
Explain how SET is culturally biased AO3
P: a limitation of SET is that it is culturally biased
E: for example, the theory implies that we are self centred and will only maintain romantic relationships if the benefits outweigh the costs. However not all relationships are voluntary, consequently it may not be possible for the individual to withdraw even if the perceived costs is higher than the perceived benefits
E: this is a limitation because SET might not be a valid theory of relationship maintenance in all cultures
69
What is the main idea of equity theory?
Most people want a balance rather than a profit in a relationship
70
How may over benefiters feel?
Pity/ guilt/ shame
71
How may under benefiters feel?
Anger, sadness, resentment
72
The greater the inequity the greater the _________ and the more ________ they are to do something about it
Dissatisfaction
Motivated
73
What are 3 ways couples can restore equity
1. Restoration of actual equity
2. Restoration of psychological equity (distort reality)
3. Leaving the relationship
74
What are the evaluation points for equity theory? AO3
+ supporting evidence
- individual differences
- cultural bias
- direction of causation
75
Evaluate supporting evidence of equity theory AO3
P: a strength of equity theory is that there is supporting evidence
E: for example, Stafford and Canary asked over 200 married couples to complete questionnaires measuring equity and satisfaction in the relationship. Satisfaction was highest in partners who perceived their relationships to be equitable, followed by over benefiters and under benefiters were least satisfied.
E: this is a strength as research supports the idea that perceived equity is an important determinant of marital satisfaction
76
Explain individual differences as a limitation of equity theory AO3
P: a limitation of equity theory is that there are individual differences
E: for example, Huseman identified 3 categories of individuals: benevolents, equity sensitives and entitleds. Benevolents are givers and more tolerant of being under rewarded. Equity sensitives behave in accordance with equity theory. Entitleds prefer to be over rewarded
E: this is a limitation because this demonstrates that there are important individual differences in the impact of inequitable relationships
77
Explain culture bias as a limitation of equity theory AO3
P: a limitation of equity theory is that there is cultural bias
E: for example, Equity may not be as important in non western cultures given that most research took place in the US. In the US it is found that the most satisfying relationship is when it is equitable but in Jamaica individuals were most satisfied when over benefitting, regardless of gender
E: this is a limitation because it suggests that the theory is limited since it only applies to some cultures
78
Explain direction of causality as a limitation of equity theory
P: a limitation of equity theory is that the direction of causality is unclear
E: for example, it may be that a lack of equity leads to dissatisfaction or it could be that when couples are dissatisfied they start monitoring each others contributions
E: this is a limitation because the direction of causality may be wrong
79
What factor does Rusbults model suggest makes relationships persist
Not only their satisfaction but also ties that bind them together (investment)
80
According to Rusbults investment model, what factors influence commitment level
1. Satisfaction
2. Comparison with Alternatives
3. Investment
81
Explain satisfaction as a factor influencing commitment level
Satisfaction is based on the concept of Comparison levels. A satisfying relationship has more rewards than costs so is seen as profitable. Each partner is generally satisfied if they get more out of a relationship than they expect based on previous experiences and social norms
82
Explain comparison with alternatives as a factor influencing commitment level
CLA is the extent to which an individuals most important needs may be better fulfilled outside the current relationship. Perceiving an alternative as attractive and that they may provide superior outcomes may lead a partner to leave their current relationship. However in some cases attractive alternatives aren’t people, could be that a partner believes they are better of single than staying in their current relationships
83
Explain investment as a factor influencing commitment level
An investment could be understood as anything we lose or would diminish in value if the relationship were to end. Investments increase dependence on the relationship because they increase connections with the partner that would be costly to break
84
What are the evaluation points for Rusbults investment model? AO3
+ supporting research
- direction of causality
+ explains why people persist in an abusive relationship
- overlooks future plans to invest
85
Evaluate supporting evidence for Rusbults investment model AO3
P: a strength of Rusbults model is that there is supporting evidence
E: for example, Le and Agnew carried out a meta analysis of 52 studies with a sample of over 11,000. Across all studies satisfaction level, CLA and investment size all predicted commitment level. The correlation between satisfaction level and commitment was found to be stronger than CLA and investment.
E: this is a strength as it provides support to Rusbults claims using a large sample size
86
Evaluate direction of causality as a limitation of Rusbults investment model AO3
P: a limitation of research into the investment model is that direction of causality may be wrong
E: for example, strong correlations have been found between all important factors predicted by the investment model but correlations do not allow us to conclude that these factors cause commitment in a relationship, it could be that the more committed you feel towards someone, the more investment you are willing to make
E: this is a limitation as the research the model is based upon is only correlational and cannot be used to establish cause and effect
87
Explain how the investment model explains why people stay in abusive relationships AO3
P: a strength of the investment model is that it has real world applications
E: for example, it can be used to explain why people persist in abusive relationships, since the partner may lack alternatives or have too much investment which would make dissolution to costly and traumatic
E: this is a strength as it can be used to explain why people persist in relationships when they aren’t satisfied, therefore the model has high explanatory power
88
Evaluate future plans as a limitation of the investment model AO3
P: a limitation of the investment model is that it overlooks any future plans that partners have made
E: for example, there is more to investment than resources already put out into the relationship, in ending a relationship an individual would not only lose investments made to date but also the possibility of any investment in the future so some relationships persist due to motivation to see these plans out
E: this is a limitation because it is suggests that the investment model is a limited explanation of romantic relationships because it fails to recognise the true complexity of the investment and how planning for the future also influences commitment
89
What are the 4 stages of Ducks model of relationship breakdown
1. The intra psychic stage
2. Dyadic stage
3. Social phase
4. Grave dressing
90
What happens in the Intra Psychic stage?
The individual feels burdened by feelings of resentment and feeling under benefitted and thinks about ending the relationship. At this stage the partner doesn’t say anything as it is all internal
91
What happens in the Dyadic phase?
There is a series of confrontations between the partners where they discuss the future of the relationship. They decide whether to breakup or repair the relationship
92
What happens in the social phase?
The breakup is made public and each partner seeks support from friends. Some friends provide reinforcement and reassurance while others might try to repair the relationship
93
What happens in the grave dressing phase?
This is the aftermath of the breakup and each partner must present themselves as being trustworthy and loyal to others so constructs a representation of the failed relationship which doesn’t paint their contribution in unfavourable terms
94
What are the evaluation points of Ducks model of relationship breakdown? AO3
- fails to reflect the possibility of personal growth
+ real life application to prevent relationship breakdown
- individual differences
- based on retrospective research
95
Explain personal growth as a limitation of Ducks relationship breakdown AO3
P: a limitation of Ducks original model is that it fails to reflect the possibility of personal growth
E: for example, Duck acknowledged that his model doesn’t account for growth following a breakup so introduced a fifth stage called the resurrection process which stresses that many people may move beyond the stress and demonstrate personal growth
E: this is a limitation since the original model fails to consider this very important stage
96
Evaluate the real life application of preventing relationship breakdown offered by Ducks model AO3
P: a strength of Ducks model is that it offers real life application to prevent relationship breakdown
E: for example, Ducks model stresses the importance of communication in relationship breakdown, so paying attention to what people say may offer an insight into their relationship so the partner can repair the relationship by improving their behaviour
E: this is a strength as it suggests the different stages offer different opportunities to prevent a relationship breaking down
97
Evaluate individual differences as a limitation of Ducks model of relationship breakdown AO3
P: a limitation of Ducks relationship breakdown model is that there are individual differences in the social stage
E: for example, younger people may recieve sympathy but no attempt at reconciliation since relationships are seen as testing grounds for future commitments. Whereas older people may recieve more obvious attempts to rescue the relationship since there are less opportunities of being able to find a replacement
E: this is a limitation because the theory doesn’t apply to all relationships
98
How is it a limitation that Ducks model is based off retrospective research? AO3
P: a limitation of Ducks model is that the evidence is based on retrospective research
E: for example, partners usually give their experiences of the breakdown sometime after it has happened since there are ethical issues around investigating a dissolution as it is happening since partner could be vulnerable
E: this is a limitation as self report retrospective data might not always be valid so it is difficult to assess their objectivity and accuracy
99
What are the 4 theories in virtual relationships ?
1. Reduced cues theory
2. The hyperpersonal model
3. Anonymity
4. Absence of gating
100
Outline reduced cues theory in virtual relationships
Virtual relationships lack non verbal cues to our emotional state such as facial expressions. This leads to de individualisation because it reduces people sense of individual identity
101
Outline the hyperpersonal model
Virtual relationships can be more personal and involve greater disclosure, since virtual relationships develop very quickly. The sender has greater control over what to disclose so has selective self presentation and the receiver then gains a positive impression of the sender
102
Outline the role of anonymity in virtual relationships
Anonymity can be used to explain self disclosure in virtual relationships since the danger of disclosing high risk information is not present as the stranger doesn’t have access to the individuals social circle
103
Outline the effects of absence of gating in virtual relationships
A gate is an obstacle to forming a relationship, face to face interactions are gated as there are many features which can interfere with the early development of a relationship. Gates include physical attractiveness, and mannerisms
In an online relationship there is an absence of these gates
104
What are the evaluation points for virtual relationships? AO3
+ supporting evidence - Baker and Oswald
- non verbal cues are not absent just different
- cultural differences
- low historical validity
105
Evaluate supporting research for virtual relationships by Oswald and Baker AO3
P: a strength of virtual relationships is that there is supporting evidence
E: for example, Oswald and Baker surveyed 207 male and female students about their shyness, Facebook usage and quality of friendships. They found that participants who scored highly for shyness and greater use of Facebook were associated with higher perceptions of friendship quality whereas those who scored low for shyness there was no correlation between Facebook usage and friendship quality
E: this is a strength since it suggests that social media sites such as Facebook can help people overcome barriers they face when forming relationships in real life such as shyness
106
Explain how non verbal cues are not absent but different in virtual relationships AO3
P: a limitation of the reduced cues theory is that non verbal cues are not absent but just different in virtual relationships
E: for example, emojis are used as effective substitutes for facial expressions. Other cues such as taking time to reply is item interpreted as more intimate than immediate responses
E: this is a limitation of the reduced cues theory as it fails to recognise that people can express their emotional state in a virtual relationship through substitutes for other non verbal cues
107
Explain how research into virtual relationships has low historical validity AO3
P: a limitation of research into virtual relationships is that it has low historical validity
E: for example, much of the research is from the early 2000s when virtual relationships lacked face to face interaction such as FaceTime which meant less rich non verbal communication. The way we interact now is completely different to technologies outlined in the theory
E: this is a limitation of research into virtual relationships since social media platforms can change so the research is outdated and lacks temporal validity
108
Explain cultural differences as a limitation of virtual relationships AO3
P: a limitation of virtual relationships is that cultural differences mediate effects on these relationships
E: for example, research has shown that Americans disclosure in virtual relationships was associated with more trust while Koreans reported greater disclosure led to less trust and disclosure wasn’t a factor of trust in Japanese virtual relationships
E: this is a limitation as it suggest that the effect of self disclosure in virtual difference only applies to some cultures so the theory isn’t universal
109
Define para social relationships
Para means resembling so resembling a relationship. They are one sided, unreciprocated and usually a fan expending affection to a celebrity
110
What are the 3 levels of parasocial relationships?
1. Entertainment social
2. Intense personal
3. Borderline pathological
111
Outline the entertainment social level of parasocial relationships
The least intense level where the fan is attracted to a celebrity and will watch them for entertainment and gossip with friends
112
Outline the intense personal level of parasocial relationships
This level involves a deeper level of involvement reflecting intensive and compulsive feelings about the celebrity, for example, having frequent thoughts and intense feelings towards the celebrity
113
Outline the borderline pathological level of parasocial relationships
The strongest level of celebrity worship, characterised by over identification with the celebrity and uncontrollable behaviour and fantasies about their lives, for example, spending a lot of money or a willingness to perform an illegal act
114
Outline what is meant by absorption in the absorption addiction model
Seeking fulfilment in celebrity worship motivates an Individual to focus their attention on the celebrity, identifying with them and learning more about them
115
Outline what is meant by addiction in the absorption addiction model
The individual needs to increase their dose which may lead to more extreme behaviours and delusional thinking. At the borderlines pathological stage the PSR become addictive because of the progressively stronger involvement and feels required to remain connected with the celebrity, including attempts to contact the celebrity
116
Evaluate supporting research from Maltby for the absorption addiction model of parasocial relationships AO3
P: a strength of the AAM is that there is supporting research
E: for example, Maltby assessed males and females aged 14-16 and were particularly interested in females who reported an intense personal PSR with a female celebrity whose body shape they admired. They found that these female adolescents tended to have a poor body image which contributed to eating disorders
E: this is a strength because it supports the models prediction of an association between poor psychological functioning and the level of PSR
117
What are the 3 properties of the attachment theory of PSRs?
1. Proximity seeking (gigs/ see on TV)
2. Secure base (presence of PSR provides security)
3. Protest at disruption (presence of distress following separation)
118
Explain how the 3 types of attachment make an individual more or less likely to form a PSR
Insecure resistant - more likely due to negative view of themselves and reduced risk of rejection. These individuals turn to TV characters as a means of satisfying their often unmet relational needs
Insecure avoidant are less likely to enter PSRs as they find it hard to develop intimate relationships
Secure attachment are less likely to be interested in celebrities because they do not have an unfulfilled need for attachment
119
Evaluate supporting research by Cohen for the attachment theory of PSRs AO3
P: a strength of the attachment theory of PSRs is that there is supporting research
E: for example, Cohen carried out a study to investigate whether viewers would show the same negative response to a loss of a PSR as they would to a loss of a real relationship. 381 adults answered questions about how they would react if their favourite TV character was taken off air and it was found that viewers would react the same to losing a PSR as they would to losing a real relationship. These feelings were related to the intensity of PSR with their favourite character. Insecure resistant participants anticipated the most negative responses
E: this is a strength as it supports the theory that attachment style influences the likelihood of forming PSRs
120
What are the general evaluation points of PSRs? AO3
- can lead to a further feeling of loneliness
- relies of self report data
+ offers practical application
121
Evaluate causing further loneliness as a limitation of PSRs AO3
P: a limitation of PSRs is that they can lead to a further feeling of loneliness
E: for example, individuals develop PSRs as a way of dealing with loneliness and Cohen also found that PSRs can lead to loneliness following a PSR breakup, in a sample of 279 students the intensity of PSR with their favourite character was the strongest predictor of loneliness following the broadcast of the final episode of a show
E: this is a limitation as PSRs shouldn’t be explained as a substitute for real relationships as their loss can create strong feelings of loneliness and cause a significant ammount of emotional harm in themselves
122
Evaluate the use of self report data as a limitation of PSRs AO3
P: a limitation of supporting research into PSRs is that it relies on self report data
E: for example, self report data often has several effects of bias on findings since participants may under report their behaviour due to shame or over state their behaviour due to competition between fans to see who the most dedicated is, this means individuals respond to questions in what they see as socially desirable ways to enhance their social status
E: this is a limitation because using a subjective method such as self report can lead to an under or over exaggeration of behaviours
123
Explain the practical application of research into PSRs AO3
P: a strength of PSRs is that there is practical applications for the treatment of stalking
E: for example, psychotherapy addresses the underlying causes and drug therapies reduce obsessive tendencies
E: this is a strength as the research into PSRs is clearly of great value to this on the receiving end of such extreme behaviours aswell as to the actual stalkers themselves
