Issues and Debates

Question 1

Bias

Answer 1

Pre-existing views of the world influence the data and theories the researcher presents. This leads to unobjective data

Question 2

How does bias spread?

Answer 2

Political viewpoints, childhood, cultural experiences

Question 3

Universality

Answer 3

Observed behaviour is the same across all humans despite differences. Behaviour is true of all humans.

Question 4

WEIRD

Answer 4

Western
Educated
Industrialised
Rich
Democratic

Question 5

Andocentric

Answer 5

Views which support a male-centric view of the world. This is because most reseachers were male (imbalance)

Question 6

Alpha bias

Answer 6

Assuming behaviour is significantly different between males and females (Bowlby’s monotropic theory) (Evolutionary theory- men are promiscuous while females are male centred)

Question 7

Beta Bias

Answer 7

Assumption that there is no significant difference between males and females( Zimbardo’s, Milgram’s and Asch)(Flight or fight response based on male response)

Question 8

(A03)(Gender differences are presented as fixed and enduring)

Answer 8

One problem with gender differences is that they are viewed as fixed and enduring. For example, researchers theorised that there are biological differences in brain structure within males and females meaning they are hard-wired with gender differences. However, this was proven wrong, no significant differences were found in the brain structures of women vs men. This suggests that we shouldn’t accept research as biological fats when they can be explained better as social stereotypes.

Question 9

(A03)(Counterpoint to biological differences)

Answer 9

However, this doesn’t mean that biological differences shouldn’t be studied. For example, researchers have shown that women have better connectivity between the two hemispheres of their brain. This supports the stereotype that women are better at multitasking compared to men. Therefore, this shows that biological differences do exists however, they shouldn’t be exaggerated and interpreted in damaging ways.

Question 10

(A03)(Publishing)

Answer 10

One problem with gender biases is that it may lead to research not being published. For example, researchers found that gender bias studies are less likely to be published in journals compared to other forms of bias. This means that less researchers are aware of gender biases to avoid them in their research. This therefore suggests that gender bias in studies may not receive the same level of attention as other biases, hindering the process of addressing gender inequality.

Question 11

Cultural bias (Ethnocentrism)

Answer 11

When human behavior is judged through a researcher who compares it to their own cultural experiences and norms.

Question 12

Ethnocentrism - Strange Situation

Answer 12

This study was developed in an American context. Child-rearing

Question 13

Henrich et al. (Universality)

Answer 13

Did a review on psychology journals and found that over 50% of research had WEIRD participants. This means that most of what we know has major cultural bias

Question 14

Cultural relativism

Answer 14

Human behaviour can only be understood within the context that it happens. It takes into account a cultural context, norms and beliefs and acknowledges that behaviours deemed normal,moral or abnormal in one culture may be different in another. Emphasises understanding and respecting cultural differences.

Question 15

(AO3)(Limitation of cultural bias)(Predjudice)

Answer 15

One consequence of cultural bias is it has lead to provide faulty evidence for eugenics. For example, during WW1, USA rolled out the IQ test which had many ethnocentric questions which meant minority groups performed poorly, this was used as evidence of their genetic inferiority. This lead to many minorities being deemed mentally unfit and denied many educational and professional opportunities. THerefore, this suggests that psychologists must actively confront and address cultural biases to promote fairness and equality in research and practice.

Question 16

(AO3)(Strength)(Cultural psychology)

Answer 16

One positive consequence of research into cultural bias is the emergence of cultural psychology. Understanding the impacts of cultural bias, psychologists are integrating perspectives from various disciplines and aims to avoid ethnocentric biases. This means that culturally- sensitive methodologies are being used. Therefore, this suggests that modern psychology offers a promising approach to addressing cultural biases in psychological research.

Question 17

(AO3)(Limitation)(ASCH/MILGRAM)

Answer 17

One problem with culturally bias studies is that many of the most influential studies are culturally biassed. For example, Milgram and Asch’s research had a sample of all WEIRD participants. This means findings of the research cannot be applied universally, as demonstrated by higher conformity rates in Asch’s study. Therefore, this suggests that our understanding of psychological phenomena should be contextualised within specific cultural frameworks.

Question 18

Causal explanations of science

Answer 18

All causes within science have an explanation, which help scientists generate universal laws. This is what determinism attempts to do. They are validated through scientific methods.

Question 19

Hard determism

Answer 19

All human behaviour has a cause and these behaviours can always be explained by forces out of our control. There is no form of free will.

Question 20

Soft determinism

Answer 20

Philosopher William James out forward the notion that although there are external and internal forces which control all of our behaviour, we still have some freedom to male rational conscious choices in everyday situations.

Question 21

Biological determinism

Answer 21

All human behaviour is determined by internal forces. These forces include our genetics, our nervous system.

Question 22

Environmental determinism

Answer 22

All of our behaviour is a sum of the external forces of the environment (reinforcement agencies (Skinner)

Question 23

Psychic determinism

Answer 23

Behaviour is dictated by our biological instincts and drives. There are no accidents, everything can be explained through the ‘slip of a tounge’

Question 24

Free Will

Answer 24

The notion that humans make their own decisions without any deterministic constraints.

Question 25

(AO3)(Strength of free-will)

Answer 25

One strength of free-will is its practical application. For example, studies have shown that believing in free will can improve your mental health. For example, researchers studied adolescents who believed in hard determinism and found that they were significantly at risk for developing depression. People who exhibit an external rather than internal LOC are less likely to be optimistic. Therefore, this suggests that the idea of free will has a positive impact on mind and behaviour.

Question 26

(AO3)(Evidence of determinism)

Answer 26

One strength of the idea of determinism is that it has research support. For example, researchers studied the brain waves of individuals who were asked to flick their wrists at a random moment. Research showed that unconscious brain activity was found a moment before the participant had decided to move their hand. This may be interpreted that many of our basic experiences of free will are actually determined by our brain before we are aware of them.

Question 27

(AO3)(Evidence of determinism)(Counterpoint)

Answer 27

However, the findings from the research shows that the brain is involved in processing decisions before they are made. Something which we are already aware of. Just because the action comes before the conscious awareness of the decision to act doesn't mean there was no decision to act, just that it took time to reach our conscious. This suggests this evidence is not appropriate to challenge free will.

Question 28

Nature-Nurture debate

Answer 28

Weather human behaviour is a consequence of our nature (the genes we inherit) or nurture (the environment we live in)

Question 29

Nature

Answer 29

Nativists such as Descartes argued that all aspects of human behaviour is inherit. Even some parts of our knowledge too.

Question 30

Nurture

Answer 30

Empiricists such as John-Locke argue that the mind is a blank slate at birth. Lerner identified different factors within the environment.

Question 31

Measuring nature-nurture

Answer 31

Can be measured in concordance rates. The similarity between two factors

Question 32

Diathesis stress model

Answer 32

Individuals are predisposed to a certain disorder due to their genetics however, this is only expressed if there is an environmental stressor which triggers the disorder.

Question 33

Epigenetics

Answer 33

The idea that our environment leaves marks on our DNA which can cause certain genes to become expressed, this may then be passed onto children. This is a third element to the nature-nurture debate.

Question 34

(AO3)(Twin studies)

Answer 34

Adoption studies are one strength of the nature-nurture debate. For example, adoption studies can be used to determine whether behaviour exhibited by the individual is either due to their environment, living with their adoptive parents, or because of their genetics, behaviour which is also exhibited by their birth parents. A meta-analysis showed that genetic influences accounted for 41% of the variance in aggression. This shows how research can separate the influences of nature and nurture.

Question 35

(AO3)(Twin studies)(Counterpoint)

Answer 35

However, nature-nurture are not two entities that can be pulled apart and studied alone. Researchers suggests that individuals pick their own nurture as a child who is naturally aggressive is more likely to hang around aggressive individuals. This is called 'niche picking'. Suggesting that it does not make sense to look at evidence of either nature or nurture.

Question 36

(Strength)(AO3)(Epigenetics, case studies)

Answer 36

One strength of the nature-nurture debate is evidence for epigenetics. For example, during the Dutch Hunger winter, 22,000 people died of starvation. Researchers found that during this time, pregnant women had low weight babies which when they grew up they were twice as likely to develop schizophrenia. This supports the view that the life experiences of pervious generations can leave epigenetic markers that influence the health of their offspring.

Question 37

Parsimony

Answer 37

The argument that the best explanation is the simplest one that fits the evidence.

Question 38

Holism

Answer 38

Gestalt psychologists believe that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. They believe in studying behaviour as a whole and reject any attempt to break it down into its smaller constituents. Qualitative methods are used.

Question 39

Reductionism

Answer 39

Breaks down behaviour into simple units. There are many levels of explanation.

Question 40

Biological reductionism

Answer 40

The neurochemical and physiological levels. The evolutionary and genetic influences

Question 41

Environmental reductionism

Answer 41

All behaviour is learned and acquired through interactions with the environment. They attempt to break down behaviour into simple stimulus-response units

Question 42

(Holism lacking practical value)(AO3)(Limitation)

Answer 42

One consequence of holism is that it may lack practical value. For example, holism cannot provide an explanation when disorders such as depression become too complex as it cannot determine which factor is the most influential. This makes it hard to treat depression. Therefore the holistic accounts may only have explanation power for more simple phenomenons.

Question 43

(Strength) (AO3) (Reductionism forming the basis)

Answer 43

One positive consequence of reductionism that it forms the basis of most scientific approaches. For example, variables must be operationalised to break down behaviours into constituent parts. This makes it possible to conduct or record observations and record empirical evidence. This scientific approach gives psychology greater credibility, placing it on equal terms with the natural sciences.

Question 44

(AO3) (Reductionism forming the basis)(Reducing validity)(Limitation)

Answer 44

However, breaking down complex behaviours into simple cause and effect relationships can lead to reduced validity. For example, explaining behaviours is not enough, we need to be able to understand those behaviours. Reducing these behaviours into simple units does not provide this explanation.This suggests that reductionist explanations can only ever form part of an explanation.

Question 45

Idiographic

Answer 45

Focuses on the subjective experience of the individual. Cultural, social and environmental context is taken into account. Produces qualitative data. Unscientific and unreliable data. However, data is more valid.

Question 46

Nomothetic

Answer 46

Establish general laws of behaviour that apply to entire populations. Generate new laws of behaviours based on inferences. Predictions of future behaviour. Experimental techniques used (highly controlled) Highly objective, ensures true replication

Question 47

AO3 Strength scientific credibility

Answer 47

One strength of both approaches is that they fit within the aims of a science. For example, within the nomothetic approach, objectivity and lab studies are used to provide reliability. Likewise, in the idiographic approach, triangulation is used where finding from a range of studies are compared as a way to increase their validity. This suggests that both the nomothetic and idiographic approaches raise psychology's status as a science

Question 48

(Complete account of both approaches)(AO3)

Answer 48

One positive consequence of the idiographic approach is that it contributes to the nomothetic approach. For example, case studies can be used to provide a global answer which can then be studied further. For example, the case study of HM lead to further research on memory as he helped reveal important insights into the topic. This suggests that even though the focus is on fewer individuals, the idiographic approach can help form 'scientific' laws of behaviour.

Question 49

(Complete account of both approaches)(AO3) Counterpoint

Answer 49

However, the idiographic approach is still provides a restricted and narrow explanation. Many generalisations cannot be made without further research into the topic. Furthermore, methods associated with the idiographic approach are not scientific and provide conclusions that are heavily subjective and open to bias. This suggests that it is difficult to build effective general theories of humans without the presence of nomothetic research

Question 50

Implications of research

Answer 50

Consequences of construction theories and conducting research, both for the participants and the groups they represent. The participant: being affected directly due to taking part in the research The public: being influenced by the publication of psychological findings eg forming negative stereotypes Groups studied: May suffer bias or discrimination due to public self awareness of harmful psychological research. Government bodies: may use research to develop policies and legislation that are not in the interest of the researched group.

Question 51

Socially sensitive research

Answer 51

Studies in which there are potential consequences or implications either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research

Question 52

Reflexi