ITWD Flashcards

Question

What is AFFECTIVE METHODS?

Answer 1

Affective methods in qualitative research focus on identifying and interpreting emotions, values, and judgments expressed by participants. These methods capture the emotional and attitudinal aspects of data, providing insight into participants' experiences, beliefs, and perspectives . Here are the diffrent kinds of coding. *Emotion coding: labels the emotions recalled or experienced by the participant Particularly appropriate for studies that explore interpersonal participant experiences and actions *Values coding: reflects participants values, attitudes and beliefs representing perspectives or a worldview Value: the importance we attribute to ourselves, another person, a thing or idea Belief: part of a system that includes values and attitudes, personal knowledge, experience, opinions, prejudices, morals, and other interpretive perceptions of the social world *Evaluation coding: judgements about the merit, worth or significance of programs or policy. *Dramaturgical coding: appropriate for exploring intrapersonal participant experiences and actions in case studies, power relationships and the processes of human motives and agency.

Answer 2

It's the step after open coding. You are sorting your codes into categories. This is to increase the level of abstraction, making associations and establishing relations between codes.

Answer 3

It is when you are selecting the most predominant categories emerging in your data and creating an overarching concept Moving from categories to key concepts, What are your data a case of?

Answer 4

First and foremost, we noticed clear indicators of the many different communication systems, thus we observed how verbal communication seemed to be one of the most vital ways of communication. In our interview with Obi-Wan, he explained that during rush hours verbal communication increased in terms of work-related commands

Answer 5

What is the phonetic alphabet

Answer 6

“White - Indicates that the information is not relevant. Grey - Indicates that a parking space is occupied, possibly by a large vehicle or a plane, and it is not something that is about to move or transport. Light Blue - Indicates readiness for action, as in the case of British Airways being ready to depart for London. It was specifically mentioned that this color indicates that the aircraft is ready if someone new, like another flight controller, takes over control, knowing immediately that it is ready. Orange - Indicates a time to move or transport. For instance, it popped up to indicate to British Airways that it is their turn to transport, suggesting a change in slot time or immediate readiness for action. Yellow - Indicates a fault or something broken, specifically when referring to an operational or technical issue that needs attention.' Light Yellow - Indicates that a vehicle has recently arrived at the parking space, used to identify and hold information about the vehicle temporarily in case there are issues like the absence of stairs or other needs.”

Answer 7

Randall et al. (2007) state that digital tools like electronic strips enhance coordination by making flight information more visible and accessible, allowing team members to stay aware of the situation without constant communication.

Answer 8

The screen in the far left corner malfunctioned. The issues highlighted by Yoda underscore significant challenges related to outdated technology and its maintenance. The struggle with the non-functioning screen is not just a technical issue but also impacts the workflow and communication within the control tower.

Answer 9

(Schmidt 1999).

Answer 10

Even though it, at first, did not look like the employees were conducting anything work related, this was not the case. Instead, they were constantly scanning the ground to look for potential changes and unexpected situations. A skill acquired through years of repetition, showing that every employee is an expert (Dreyfus 1997). page 29

Answer 11

Schmidt and Bannon’s theory shows that the workplace operates on mutual dependence, where employees coordinate and rely on each other's expertise and timely actions to get their tasks done efficiently.

Answer 12

According to Robinson's theory, common artefacts like brightness controls are integral to workflows and must be dependable. The simple rotary knob is effective for air traffic control because it allows rapid adjustments, whereas the complex, multi-step software approach highlights how poor design can hinder efficiency and response in high-pressure environments

Answer 13

The color-coded system mediates cooperative work by creating a shared information space, enhancing situational awareness and enabling quick decision-making, which aligns with Randall et al.’s emphasis on digital artefacts and Schmidt and Bannon’s concept of maintaining shared information.

Answer 14

Electronic strips act as mediators by providing nonverbal interaction, visually displaying flight statuses, and reducing cognitive load, which aligns with Schmidt's idea that artefacts play a crucial role in coordinating cooperative work.

Answer 15

Yoda’s handling of faults highlights Robinson's theory that common artefacts must be reliable and seamlessly integrated into operations. When these tools fail, they disrupt workflows, emphasizing the need for effective support mechanisms to maintain efficiency in collaborative workspaces.

Answer 16

The sequence manager structures the flow of time-sensitive operational information, crucial for maintaining an orderly sequence of flights. Its current placement at the outbound position is problematic because it is more needed at the inbound position for managing incoming flights and updating clearances. This misplacement hinders efficient communication and operational efficiency.

Answer 17

Suchman’s theory of ‘centres of coordination’ aligns with Dreyfus’s concept of expertise, the final stage of his ‘5 stages of skills acquisition’. In high-stakes environments like air traffic control, only individuals at the expert stage, who can act on immediate intuitive response and handle complex tasks with precision, are present. This level of expertise is crucial for managing the critical responsibilities inherent in such centers.

Answer 18

The key findings include the importance of structured tasks and clearly defined roles, extensive use of verbal communication and cooperation among ATCo's, and the critical role of artefacts in facilitating nonverbal communication and situational awareness. Reliable and intuitive artefacts are crucial for maintaining operational efficiency, and outdated technology can lead to inefficiencies, highlighting the need for continuous updates and strategic placement of tools.

Answer 19

1. Lack of knowledge surrounding codes and context 2. Being a very noticeable fly on the wall 3. 5 students can't fix these problems in 2 days 1.The study acknowledged difficulties in understanding the codes and context of the radiofrequency system, which complicated the note-taking process. This limited the ability to fully analyze and write about how ATCos use the radio and communicate with planes, affecting the depth and clarity of the analysis. 2. ATCos responded positively, appreciating the unique questions and the effort the researchers put into observing their workplace before formulating them. They found the questions more relevant and engaging compared to typical surveys. However, the challenge of being a passive observer was noted as ATCos occasionally wanted to explain their actions during the observation, which made us become an active observer. 3. Our assistance to the Empire's workplace reconfigurations was limited to minor inconveniences, reflecting the already highly functional nature of air traffic controllers' workspaces. Employee attention and expertise drove ongoing redesign processes, addressing most areas in need of improvement. Although routine sometimes obscured areas for enhancement, ethnographic research proved crucial in identifying opportunities for positive change.

Answer 20

“Being mutually dependent in work means that ‘A’ relies positively on the quality and timeliness of ‘B’s work and vice versa”

Answer 21

At first sight everything seems as individual work, but it entails cooperation, coordination, overview More complex and refined than one would think Aim: Show that focus on tacit and invisible work is important when designing technology  support the flexibility required

Answer 22

Tips to an interview - “What do you mean when you say …?” - “Can you tell me more about how it can be that you do this, not that?” - “How did you get involved, interested, enrolled?” Recordings Make sure equipment works (all voices can be heard) Make scratch notes – non-verbal aspects can be noted during the interview Seek informed consent + subject anonymity Transcribing Time consuming, if you do not have the time - Write up/ sum up - Examples by quoting - Use time as an indicator

Answer 23

Triage is a form of process management that fast tracks incoming workflow by priority so the most critical work is attended to first. For example, it is how emergency rooms assess priority for patient care in hospitals. It also is used by companies needing faster workflows for projects under tight deadlines or based.

Answer 24

Knowledge that easily can be expressed, codified and/or recorded for people to understand. One does not necessarily need to be an expert nor proficient within the field to wither understand or further convey the knowledge

Answer 25

Knowledge that most often experts or proficient personal have, and this knowledge that they have will be hard to explain to someone who is not an expert within the field. Moreover, will it be difficult to transfer the knowledge.

Answer 26

- Anyone can do it (questioning the taken for granted) - Being an insider qualifies (overlooks tacit assumptions) - Ethnography is no systematic methodology (careful concious approach, reflexivity) - Just chat with people, and report what they say (understanding and analysis) - Just ask people (more than what people say they do) - Patterns exist, just gather them (careful gathering of data + analysis)

Answer 27

Mutual dependent in work, people have to coordinate their activities, connects distributed tasks -> cooperation needed in order to get work done One relying positively on quality and timelines of anothers work and vice versa

Answer 28

Knowing what we are looking for Looking at things from the top down Conclusion making from evidence and reflections on it Testing theory data From general to specific: Research drawing from existing theories to analyze and verify hypothesis (based on known facts but not proved yet) Theory -> Hypothesis -> Data Collection -> Results -> Confirm or reject hypothesis -> Revision of theory

Answer 29

In this course, we primarily do inductive research -> conduct fieldwork and analyze impirical material to generate theories What is going on here? Looking at things from the bottom up Explainatory and emergent enterprise Decisions and discoveries made as you go New comulative learnings provide evidence and build a case From the specific to the general Developing theories from data Can be done with both qualitative and quantitative data: We primarly analyze qualitative data, from observations and interviews Observations (data) -> Analysis (results) ->Hypothesis (theory)

Answer 30

She studied people using/ failing to use copy machines featuring big screen buttons on them Result: the design of the copiers “user friendly” interface made to “know” what the users were trying to do, was fundamentally flawed The goal oriented and plan-based models of human conduct, which form basics for HCI + cognitice science has shortcomings - Diminish the importance of immediate context of conduct Meaning of plans, scripts, rules: dependent on the circumstances in which they are invoked Formalism: subject to the contingencies arising in actual ‘practical situations of choice’ – ruling plans, scripts, etc. Depending: on ordinary common-sense abilities and reasoning of individuals for their deployment and intelligibility We can only understand tech, and their various actions involved by considering how they work with practical action and with regard to circumstances (in which mundane activities are produced)

Answer 31

Plans don’t dictate our actions step by step, they guide us helping us to use our surroundings to our advantage and avoid potential problems through immediate action

Answer 32

Invisible Work Visibility of invisible work can lead to more surveillence and paperwork What counts as work does not depend on a set of indicators, instead it depends on the definition of the situation Things that might look like ‘not real work’ while actually it is practices that make this real work function more smoothly Breakdown situation This is where invisible work becomes visible Creating a non-person The product of work is visible but the person is invisible Disembedding background work The workers are visible, but the work they perform is invisible or related to a background of expectations Abstraction and manipulation of indicators Both people and work might be defined as invisible Two cases 1 – when productivity is quantified through a series of indirect indacators 2 – the products of work are commodities purchased at a distance from the setting of the work Relationship between visible and invisible Ask what is work and to whom it might be visible/invisible

Answer 33

Disagree with statement: that plans don’t dictate action - We follow the general rules of the protocol, without searching for reason not to do so or negotiating whether we should Kanban system: determines action in a far stronger sense than the map of a traveler (determines travelers movements) - Says its more like a script than a map Lack of empirical evidence in Suchman’s statement -> introducing that organizational construct can either function as a map (Suchman) or as a script

Answer 34

Suchman: Checklists guide actions in sequence and standardize procedures, reducing individual control. Schmidt: While checklists provide structure, they must be flexible for different contexts and unforeseen events. Reducing local control is necessary for safety but should be balanced with adaptability and integration with other tools.

Answer 35

“Good Old Fashioned Artificial Intelligence” The mind works with mental presentations of the world - More facts = larger immage gallery (used to make sense of the world) Reasoning: made up by rules on how the mind and the world should be matched, formalized into logic

Answer 36

The text is about Lucy Suchman's 2002 work, "Located Accountabilities in Technology Production," which discusses the role and responsibilities of social scientists and designers in the creation and implementation of technology. Key Points: - Workflow Influence: Social scientists bring their own perspectives, affecting how workflows are understood and designed, based on their learned knowledge. - Design Approaches: - Design from Nowhere: The idea of creating technical systems that are meant to be universally applicable and detached from specific contexts. - Design from Somewhere: Advocates for design that is context-sensitive and acknowledges the specific settings where the technology will be used. - Detached Intimacy: Designers are engaged closely with corporate goals but remain distanced from the actual sites of technology use. - Located Accountability: Emphasizes the responsibility of designers and social scientists to account for their own perspectives and the specific contexts in which technology is produced and used. - Construction and Communication: Highlights the need to understand and convey the social relations and user interactions involved in technology use, ensuring that recommendations are effectively communicated to and implemented by those who need them.

Answer 37

While Suchmans work is focused on things going wrong/ not working Randall suggest the importance of observe/ analyse when things go according to plan - observing how things work normally, allow us to see how work is planned and organized

Answer 38

(Today more likely seen as algorithms, or systems) – like a spam filter for your mail The text provides different empirical evidence from other cases where computal systems implemented was not valued by the users, they would rather control this themselves - also highlighting how ‘fancy’ functions proved to be ignored by the users, as they prefered simplicity of a task Ex. The spam filter The users did not trust it, and would rather a function where they themselves could filter their mail in different folders/ categories

Answer 39

Much communication is mediated through/by the material it works on - like reading states of work objects as signs Ex. FLIGHT STRIPS!!! Flight progress strips contain information on each flight – not pads but not personal ones.  we mostly saw it in the change of color and information on the strips, and the possibility to move them around on the screen depending on status

Answer 40

The four papers are part of a discussion from 1990s The papers are discussing ‘The Coordinator’ - a computer program which is being built to help teams understand communication within a workplace A tool for interorganizational comunication (like email) - sends conflict notifications/reminders - filters and visualize current ongoing conversations System for: managing action, grounded theory of linguistic commitment + completion of conversations Seen as an instructor, monitoring one’s actions, keeping track of temporal relations, and warning of potential breakdowns Question for debate: “Should the coordinator be implemented in workplaces?”

Answer 41

She is against the coordinator and the speech act theory as she is concerned that this will categorize people based on whoever gets to decide this categorization. People categorize others differently, and can end up in a situation where the tool is misused to discipline people. Highlights that we force predefined systems instead of guiding technology lightly while it follows its own course.

Answer 42

Argues that Suchman misunderstands the goal of the theory, and that it is not implemented to negatively discipline, but rather to structure the adaption/ how people interpret whatever people find in their environment – people already reproduce existing social structure. He highlights that it not a matter if this technology should be used, but rather how to use it in the right way to understand and keep track on interactions.

Answer 43

They are very neutral in the case by agreeing to both ealier texts. However they imply that there is no way to know if this is a good or bad technology before trying it out (try and error). Design of technology is evolving, and we are starting to incorporate social knowledge. This could be a learning experience, and has great possibilities  together this could work, it is open to reconfigurations and no technology will be helpful or fully understood in the initial stages of implementing it.

Answer 44

Another neutral text, but it disagrees more with both Suchman and Winograd. It shreds light on the duality of categorization and how it both contraints and allows for certain actions. However these constraints/ enablings can be perceived differently by different users, and their different roles. Also before we as Suchman directly conclude that The Coordinator would be used for control, we might consider the users options of neglecting, adjusting, etc. the category system.

Answer 45

Could be interesting to look into, however a deep dive would make more sense if we had the opportunity to follow trainees in the process of becoming an Air Traffic Controller. Since we only had a brief interaction with one of these on the first day. But it would be silly not to mention this theory because it is presumably very very rare to have a workplace with actors that only consists of level 5 expertise - Experts

Answer 46

Ethnographic field methods study how people work together by observing them naturally. They use theories like CSCW to understand group dynamics, with strategies involving both passive and active observation. Ethnography focuses on what people actually do in real-life settings. - **how can this be interpret in relation to our report?** On our first day of observation, we intended all observations to be passive or "fly on the wall." However, we ended up combining passive observation with participant observation. This may have resulted in uneven responses, where some observations adhered to the ethnographic principle of "Description – prescription," focusing on what people actually do rather than what they are supposed to do (ideal vs. manifest behavior).

Answer 47

**Agency:** The **tool** taking part in structuring: what to do, when to do it, and in what order *Lists, tables, plans, paper, computer screens, whiteboards, etc.* Organize work, enabling handling of complex cooperation of distributed actors **Data Ecosystem:** - Any human activity related (or labour of) to creating, collecting, managing, curating, analyzing, interpreting, and communicating data - I.e. the process from when a plane announces it is ready to leave early, to the ATCo analyzing and process this data on the screen and communicating this (Through another screen) to the service in brussels that then communicate with the end destination airport. After all of this the data is then transmitted back and it is decided whether or not approval for early departure is given. - YODA Said it like this *“Data samles omkring kapacitet og luftfart som siger hey, hvis nu der er nogle andre, bliver forsinket. Der skal til London, så er British Airways har vist København klar til at få den tid, så derfor så kan der faktisk være, at den dér tid lige nu må man starte 9 47 det kunne være den blev.”*

Answer 48

Triage Work: Triage is a form of process management that fast tracks incoming workflow by priority so the most critical work is attended to first. For example, it is how emergency rooms assess priority for patient care in hospitals. It also is used by companies needing faster workflows for projects under tight deadlines or based. - Triage work is like managing an airport control tower, where staff must decide which planes get the runway. They have a schedule which they follow but they must be somewhat adaptable/flexible if there is a emergencies landing. - Also, something as simple as a small plane being allowed to cut in line in front of a big plane can happen because there is a rule that you are not allowed to fly 2 minutes after a big plane takes off. Therefore, they can prioritize a small airplane taking off in front.

Answer 49

**This is maybe a far reach, but..** - In the case of the centre of coordination we observed, one of the employees emphasized how they believed that their work process - the verbal-communication - would be replaced with a non-verbal communication. As we have emphasized throughout the assignment through the observations, is that verbal-communication is one of their main tools for operation and one of the main ways that they are communicating. However, with the evolution of modern technology, their main work could replaced with more technical technology and maybe the incorporation of AI systems. - **How does this correlate with Robinsons idea of ‘Sequence of action’** - **Unanticipated use:** in each case the designers has specific ways of operation in mind, but when the users took in into their own use, they reconstructed in to match their actual work - **Emphasizing** that a practice is better conceptualized when put into use by the actual users, not only by information from analysis and practice - maybe correlating this with how the designers had “good” ideas for the architectural design of the building, however that the idea had shown only to course problems and they had to design artefacts that could help them solve these problems - The auto-bin system - people dismissed the idea, they lost overview over their data, they wanted control over what they did not see and what they had the ability to see.

Answer 50

An example of a system that caused issues was created by an engineer. Users had to log in and look away from the window, which interfered with their job of needing to look out the window. On the other hand, a successful technology production was the gate screen and microphone built by an ATC. The system worked perfectly as intended. The microphone had two built-in buttons – one for all radio channels and one for only. The gate screen had a perfect color-coded system that made it easy to understand, and when the shift ended the new employee could quickly get an overview of the situation.

ITWD Flashcards

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