JVIM 2024 Flashcards

Question

Discordance Between ABC Blood Phenotype and Genotype in a Domestic Short Haired Cat

Answer 1

A feline leukemia virus-positive adult cat was referred for kidney failure and transfusion-dependent anemia. Despite repeated ABC blood typing using immunochromatographic strips, no clear A or B antigen bands were detected. The cat's plasma agglutinated RBCs from both type A and B cats, but its own RBCs showed mixed compatibility in crossmatches. Genotyping revealed a homozygous c.179G>T CMAH variant consistent with type B blood. The findings suggest either an extremely weak expression of type B antigens or a complete absence of ABC antigens, resembling the rare Bombay phenotype seen in humans

Answer 2

Among 401 dogs with canine parvovirus (CPV), 83.8% (336) survived to discharge. Nonsurvivors had a significantly higher median platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (PLR) (336.56 vs. 217.65; P = .003). The PLR had 21.5% sensitivity and 90% specificity for predicting nonsurvival. No association was found between hospitalization duration and hematologic ratios or total WBC count. Median lymphocyte counts were low across all dogs but significantly lower in nonsurvivors (0.82 ×10⁹/L) than survivors (1.27 ×10⁹/L; P = .005). PLR at hospital admission may serve as a useful prognostic indicator of disease severity in dogs with CPV. Lower lymphocyte and higher monocyte counts are also associated with poorer outcomes.

Answer 3

Liver histologic abnormalities were identified in 98% (51/52) of dogs with gallbladder mucocele (GBM). The most common findings were hepatic fibrosis (73%), biliary hyperplasia (56%), and portal inflammation (48%). Liver histopathologic changes are highly prevalent in dogs with GBM. Greater portal fibrosis may be linked to reduced long-term survival following cholecystectomy. Elevated NLR may help predict hepatic necrosis and inflammatory liver disease in this population.

Answer 4

Octreotide was prescribed in 89% (16/18) of dogs with protein-losing enteropathy (PLE) and suspected or confirmed intestinal lymphangiectasia (IL) that were unresponsive to standard treatments. Adverse effects occurred in 17% (3/18) of dogs, with treatment discontinued in one case. Clinical improvement was observed in 50% (6/12) of dogs. While a definitive benefit could not be confirmed, the drug was generally well tolerated and may warrant further investigation in this context.

Answer 5

Dogs with stage D myxomatous mitral valve disease (MMVD) had significantly lower ionized magnesium ([iMg²⁺]) levels compared to dogs in the NO-CHF and stage C groups (P < .0001 and P < .003, respectively). Hypomagnesemia was associated with a ~4-fold increased risk of death (HR = 4.015; 95% CI: 1.537–10.488; P = .005). Ionized magnesium ([iMg²⁺]) may be a useful prognostic biomarker in dogs with MMVD, reflecting disease severity and survival risk. When combined with echocardiography and other diagnostics, [iMg²⁺] could enhance clinical decision-making and prognostic evaluation.

Answer 6

Thymidine kinase 1 (TK1) autoantibody levels were significantly higher in dogs with malignant tumors (median 0.71) compared to healthy controls (0.34), dogs with non-tumor diseases (0.34), and benign tumors (0.32; P < .0001). TK1 autoantibody levels also significantly differed among tumor types—carcinomas (0.77), hematopoietic tumors (0.71), and sarcomas (0.56)—compared to healthy dogs (P < .0001). TK1 autoantibody is a more effective biomarker than TK1 protein for distinguishing tumor-bearing dogs from healthy ones.

Answer 7

Fecal samples from 38 Giardia duodenalis-infected dogs (21 diarrheic, 17 nondiarrheic) showed no significant differences in overall microbial diversity (alpha and beta diversity). Among diarrheic dogs, males had higher alpha diversity than females (q = 0.01), and higher levels of Clostridium genus and Clostridium spiroforme species were noted in diarrheic males compared to nondiarrheic males. In diarrheic dogs, Proteobacteria were more abundant and Verrucomicrobia were less abundant in dogs under 1 year old. The fecal dysbiosis index (DI) was similar between diarrheic and nondiarrheic groups. Disease severity may be influenced more by host or parasite-specific factors rather than changes in microbial composition.

Answer 8

The cat showed complete clinical and biochemical recovery following treatment with prednisolone and desoxycorticosterone pivalate. While acute adrenal necrosis following anesthesia is well documented in humans, this is the first reported case of hypoadrenocorticism due to cytologically confirmed acute adrenal necrosis in a cat (or dog).

Answer 9

Most dogs with forebrain disease (23/24) and all with brainstem or cerebellar disease had ipsilateral head and body turns. In the cerebellar group, head tilts were consistently contralateral to the lesion. In dogs with cervical spinal cord lesions, head turns, body turns, and head tilts were contralateral to the lesion location. While head turn is commonly associated with forebrain disease, it is not exclusive to it. Specific combinations of head turn, head tilt, and body turn can help refine neuroanatomic localization, underscoring the importance of accurate clinical classification.

Answer 10

The study demonstrated excellent intra- and interrater reliability for lung ultrasound scoring (LUSS) and pattern identification across clinicians with varying levels of experience. These findings indicate that lung ultrasound scoring and pattern identification using LUSS have excellent intra- and interrater reliability. This supports the integration of LUSS as a consistent and reliable diagnostic tool in emergency and intensive care settings, regardless of the clinician's level of experience.

Answer 11

Cats with AA amyloidosis had significantly higher urine protein-to-creatinine (UPC) ratios (median 3.9, range 0.6–12.7) compared to unaffected cats (median 1.5, range 0.6–3.1; P = .03), as well as higher urine SAA-to-creatinine (UAAC) ratios (median 7.18 × 10⁻³ vs. 1.26 × 10⁻³; P = .04). SDS-AGE revealed mixed-type proteinuria in 89.4% of affected cats and 55.6% of unaffected cats (P = .57). LC-MS identified 63 potential urinary biomarkers for AA amyloidosis, including significantly elevated apolipoprotein C-III in affected cats (median 1.38 × 10⁷ vs. 1.76 × 10⁶; P = .01). Histologically, AA amyloidosis was associated with glomerulosclerosis (P = .02) and interstitial fibrosis (P = .05). Renal AA amyloidosis in shelter cats is linked to significant kidney pathology, increased proteinuria, and elevated urinary excretion of serum amyloid A.

Answer 12

The most common clinical signs were decreased appetite (19/29), lethargy (16/29), and fever (13/29). All dogs had elevated serum transaminase activities, with 21/29 showing hyperbilirubinemia and 12/24 exhibiting neutrophilia. Ultrasonographic abnormalities included hepatomegaly (12/22), nodular parenchymal lesions (9/22), and hyperechoic bands (8/22). Histopathology revealed moderate to severe necroinflammatory changes in 16/19 dogs and mild fibrosis in 14/19. Median survival time was 635 days (range 1–2482 days). Granulomatous hepatitis (GH) in dogs is associated with significant liver inflammation, systemic signs such as fever and neutrophilia, and common ultrasonographic findings like hepatomegaly and focal lesions. Despite the severity of clinical and histopathologic findings, affected dogs can have favorable outcomes and prolonged survival with appropriate medical management.

Answer 13

Affected Eurasier dogs exhibited episodes of generalized ataxia, hypermetric thoracic limb gait, dystonia, and irregular flexion/extension of the thoracic limbs. MRI in two dogs revealed symmetrical, bilateral T2 and FLAIR hyperintense, T1 hypo- to isointense, non-enhancing lesions in the caudate nucleus, thalamus, geniculate nuclei, hippocampus, and rostral colliculus, along with mild generalized brain atrophy. Genetic analysis identified a homozygous MECR (mitochondrial trans-2-enoyl-CoA reductase) missense variant in all three dogs, and a homozygous ATG4D (autophagy-related gene 4D) variant in two of them.

Answer 14

20 healthy cats Results: The median follow-up duration was similar between control cats (38.7 months) and high-salt diet cats (51.4 months). No significant differences were observed between groups in glomerular filtration rate (GFR), blood pressure, plasma creatinine, cardiac structure and function (including LV wall thickness, internal diameters, systolic function, and left atrial size), or Doppler echocardiographic variables. One cat in the control group developed hypertension, and one in the high-salt group developed persistent azotemia. Early signs of chronic kidney disease were noted in four nonazotemic cats (two from each group), supported by biochemical and necropsy findings. Conclusions and Clinical Importance: A high-sodium commercial diet (3.26 ± 0.30 g/Mcal ME) was well tolerated and did not adversely affect renal or cardiac function in healthy aged cats over a period of up to five years, supporting its safety in this population.

Answer 15

Serum concentrations of T4, fT4, and fT3 decreased with age. Total thyroxine (TT4) levels varied significantly across estrous stages, with higher concentrations observed during estrus and diestrus. TT4 was positively correlated with progesterone and negatively correlated with 17-β-estradiol. Canine TSH (cTSH) levels showed a positive correlation with 17-β-estradiol. No significant differences in thyroid hormone or cTSH levels were found between pregnant and pseudopregnant dogs during diestrus.

Answer 16

Elevated serum insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and imaging confirmed a pituitary mass. The dog developed diabetes mellitus six weeks later. Histopathology confirmed a growth hormone-secreting acidophil pituitary neoplasm. Postoperatively, clinical and biochemical signs of hypersomatotropism resolved, though diabetes mellitus persisted. This case represents the first reported successful surgical resolution of hypersomatotropism in a dog through transsphenoidal hypophysectomy.

Answer 17

Following initiation of treatment, hypercalcemia resolved in 100% (29/29) of dogs, and azotemia resolved in 79.3% (23/29). Resolution of azotemia was significantly influenced by initial serum creatinine (OR 0.148) and total calcium concentrations (OR 0.36) Blood urea nitrogen, IRIS grade, sex, and hospitalization status did not significantly affect azotemia resolution. While acute kidney injury (AKI) is a concern in dogs presenting with hypercalcemia of malignancy (HM) secondary to lymphoma, renal-related mortality appears uncommon. Most dogs experience resolution of hypercalcemia and azotemia with treatment, and persistent renal impairment is an infrequent cause of death.

Answer 18

NCS and NCSE are common and under-recognized in dogs and cats with cluster seizures and are associated with significantly higher mortality. Given the difficulty in clinically detecting these conditions, early EEG monitoring is strongly recommended for timely diagnosis and management in patients presenting with cluster seizures

Answer 19

Basal serum cortisol (BSC) concentrations were <2 μg/dL in 47.5% (48/101) of non-PGA dogs and 82% (9/11) of PGA dogs. Iatrogenic hypoadrenocorticism (EEH) has a prevalence of 0.9%. Endogenous ACTH (eACTH) was markedly higher in the dog with EEH (396 pg/mL) compared to non-PGA dogs The cortisol-to-ACTH ratio was significantly lower in the EEH dog (median 0.002) compared to both non-PGA and PGA dogs Specific clinical and clinicopathologic features—such as elevated eACTH, decreased cortisol-to-ACTH ratio, and altered acute phase protein profiles—may help improve diagnostic suspicion for EEH or prior glucocorticoid administration (PGA)

Answer 20

* 1371 differentially methylated CpG sites (DMCs) were identified. * Two specific CpG sites near FAM213A (DMC-F) and PHLPP1 (DMC-P) were validated: o Dogs with DMC-F < 40% methylation had better prognosis (MST 11–1072 days vs. 8–1792 days, P = .01). o Dogs with DMC-F < 40% and DMC-P < 10% had even better prognosis (MST 18–1072 days vs. 8–1792 days, P = .009). Conclusions and Clinical Importance This study demonstrates that specific CpG site methylation patterns, particularly at DMC-F and DMC-P, are associated with significantly longer survival in dogs with multicentric high-grade B-cell lymphoma

Answer 21

For Stage B2 dogs, mitral regurgitation severity index (MRSI) >156 predicted shorter time to congestive heart failure (median 407 vs 1404 days; AUC 0.68; HR 3.02; P < .001) MRSI >173 predicted shorter overall survival (median 868 vs 1843 days; AUC 0.64; HR 4.26; P < .001). The MRSI was not predictive for Stage C dogs. Conclusions and Clinical Importance The MRSI effectively predicts onset of CHF and overall survival in Stage B2 MMVD

Answer 22

In this two-phase study, 17.9% (27/151) of dogs with primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) had elevated serum gastrin concentrations, though these were not associated with ionized calcium (P = .92) or parathyroid hormone (P = .60). Post-treatment follow-up showed significant reductions in PTH and calcium, but not in gastrin (P = .15). Gastrointestinal signs were not associated with higher gastrin levels (P = 1.00), and acid-suppressant therapy was an exclusion criterion. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Mild hypergastrinemia occurs in some dogs with PHPT but appears unrelated to calcium or PTH levels, treatment response, or GI clinical signs. The role of gastrin in PHPT remains unclear and likely not clinically relevant in most cases.

Answer 23

In this retrospective study, the median age of cats with gastrointestinal eosinophilic sclerosing fibroplasia (GESF) was 5.4 years. Masses most commonly involved the small intestine (32%), stomach (27%), and ileocolic junction (15%). Common clinical signs included weight loss (60%), hyporexia (55%), and vomiting (37%). Eosinophilia was present in 50% of cats. While only 37% of cats had surgical resection, most (98%) were treated with corticosteroids. There was no significant survival difference between those treated medically versus surgically, and 88% of cats were alive at the time of writing. Conclusions and Clinical Importance GESF in cats has a better prognosis than historically reported. Medical management alone may be adequate in many cases.

Answer 24

APPLEfast and APPLEfull scores were significantly higher in non-survivors compared to survivors (P = .01 and .02, respectively), but only APPLEfast was independently predictive of mortality (P = .03; OR = 1.08). Blood glucose was also higher in non-survivors (431 vs 343 mg/dL; P = .01), and each 1 mg/dL increase increased mortality risk (P = .02; OR = 1.004). Optimal cutoff values for mortality were 24.5 for APPLEfast and 358 mg/dL for blood glucose. Conclusions and Clinical Importance APPLEfast and blood glucose are useful predictors of mortality in cats with first-time DKA

Answer 25

This prospective, randomized trial compared methylprednisolone (M-group) alone to combinations with cyclosporine (MC-group) or mycophenolate mofetil (MM-group). Response rates, relapse frequency, complications, and hospital stay length were not significantly different between groups. However, mortality was higher in the MM-group compared to the MC-group at both 60 days (+42.8%, P = .009) and one year (+50%, P = .003). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Adding a second immunosuppressant to methylprednisolone did not improve hematologic response in dogs with non-associative IMHA. Mycophenolate may be associated with increased mortality risk compared to cyclosporine.

Answer 26

Dogs with chronic inflammatory enteropathy (CIE) had increased peripheral activated helper T cells and regulatory T cells compared to controls. In the intestinal epithelium, dogs with CIE had significantly reduced helper T cells, activated helper T cells, and CD4/CD8 ratios, but increased percentages of activated cytotoxic T cells and IFN-γ-producing T lymphocytes. Lamina propria tissues from CIE dogs also exhibited higher proportions of regulatory T cells. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Systemic and intestinal immune dysregulation occurs in CIE, and markers such as blood IFN-γ-producing T lymphocytes and the systemic immune-inflammation index (SII) may serve as useful biomarkers for disease detection and monitoring

Answer 27

This retrospective study identified Pugs as the most common breed affected. All dogs exhibited recurrent vestibular episodes with no abnormalities on blood work or MRI/CT. EEG revealed interictal spikes in three dogs. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This supports the existence of idiopathic vestibular epilepsy in dogs, with favorable outcomes following treatment.

Answer 28

Serology was positive in 10/15 tested dogs, PCR detected N. caninum DNA in 11, and histopathology showed inflammatory myopathy in 10 and necrotizing changes in 5. Diagnostic confirmation was strongest when multiple modalities—PCR, immunohistochemistry, ISH, and histopathology—were combined. Conclusions and Clinical Importance No single diagnostic test was sufficient to rule in or rule out neosporosis. A multimodal diagnostic strategy combining serology and direct detection methods (PCR or histopathology) provides a more reliable diagnosis, especially in neuromuscular forms of the disease.

Answer 29

Immunohistochemical expression of key steroidogenic enzymes (CYP11A1, CYP11B, CYP17, HSD3B2) did not differ significantly between cortisol-producing and nonfunctional adrenal tumors. Despite trends toward lower CYP11B expression in nonfunctional tumors, differences were not statistically significant. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Immunohistochemistry for steroidogenic enzymes does not reliably differentiate functional from nonfunctional canine adrenocortical tumors. These findings suggest tumor size and enzyme expression alone are inadequate for functional classification.

Answer 30

Following IV administration of iodinated contrast media (lopamidol), urinary iodine levels increased 37- to 884-fold within the first day and gradually declined to baseline by Day 10. Significant elevations in urinary iodine and the iodine-to-creatinine ratio were observed through Day 10. Conclusions and Clinical Importance A 2-week interval between iodinated contrast use and radioactive iodine treatment for hyperthyroidism appears reasonable, though this needs further validation in hyperthyroid cats.

Answer 31

Eight circulating microRNAs were differentially expressed (fold change >2, FDR <0.05), including four canine-specific sequences (e.g., cfa-miR-221, -222, -23a, -205), three murine, and one human. Seven microRNAs were upregulated and one was downregulated in affected dogs. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis revealed that many of these microRNAs are involved in pancreatic inflammatory pathways. Conclusions and Clinical Importance The study identified several microRNAs as potential biomarkers for canine chronic pancreatitis.

Answer 32

No overall association between SM and MMVD severity was found. However, symptomatic SM dogs had significantly smaller left ventricular dimensions and atrial sizes compared to both asymptomatic SM dogs and those without SM (P < .03 for all). Conclusions and Clinical Importance MMVD and SM do not appear to co-segregate in CKCS. Interestingly, symptomatic SM may be associated with smaller cardiac chamber dimensions

Answer 33

Cats with chronic inflammatory enteropathy (CIE) showed significantly lower sodium, higher potassium, and lower sodium-to-potassium ratios than healthy controls. These abnormalities were more pronounced in cats with mucosal fibrosis and in those that died from disease, suggesting a relationship between electrolyte changes, intestinal fibrosis, and prognosis. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Electrolyte disturbances are common in feline CIE, particularly in severe or fibrotic disease. These findings may have prognostic value and point toward novel treatment targets.

Answer 34

Volumetric reduction in the cingulate gyrus may reflect structural changes in idiopathic epilepsy. Semiautomated MRI volumetry provides a consistent method for quantifying these changes and could support lateralization of epileptic foci.

Answer 35

The study assessed the performance of a dipstick protein-to-USG ratio (DUR) against UPCR. In dogs, a DUR >1.4 identified proteinuria (UPCR >0.5) with 89% sensitivity and 83% specificity. In cats, a DUR >2.1 identified proteinuria (UPCR >0.4) with 70% sensitivity and 100% specificity. The correlation was not influenced by urine sediment, glucose, or pH. Conclusions and Clinical Importance The DUR is a relatively accurate tool for detecting proteinuria. However, due to its low negative predictive value, it should not be used to rule out proteinuria

Answer 36

Compared to normal adrenal tissue, pheochromocytomas (PCCs) had significantly higher norepinephrine (median 88%) and lower epinephrine (median 12%) proportions. PCCs also showed decreased fumarate (0.4-fold) and malate (0.5-fold), but increased citrate (1.6-fold). One dog displayed a markedly elevated succinate:fumarate ratio, suggesting a potential SDHx gene mutation. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Dogs with pheochromocytomas exhibit a distinct catecholamine and metabolic profile. Targeted metabolomic profiling may provide a means to uncover underlying genetic mutations and improve diagnostic specificity.

Answer 37

Urine anion gap (UAG) inversely correlated with the urine ammonia-to-creatinine ratio (UACR) in healthy cats (P < .002, ρ = –0.40) but not in cats with CKD (P = .55). UAG was significantly different between healthy and CKD cats (P < .001), but could not substitute for UACR as a surrogate measure. Conclusions and Clinical Importance UAG does not reliably estimate ammonia excretion in cats and cannot replace UACR, although it may still reflect physiological differences between healthy and CKD-affected cats.

Answer 38

Dogs with AKI had significantly elevated normalized uTIMP-2 and [uTIMP-2] × [ulGFBP7]/uCr values compared to other groups (P < .05). FeNGAL was also significantly higher in AKI dogs (median 54.17%) than in healthy (0.03%) and critically ill dogs (3.05%; P < .02). Conclusions and Clinical Importance uTIMP-2, [uTIMP-2] × [ulGFBP7]/uCr, and FeNGAL are promising early biomarkers for diagnosing AKI in dogs, distinguishing it from CKD and critical illness.

Answer 39

EBVM must be integrated more robustly into veterinary education and clinical workflows. Doing so will enhance the development of practice guidelines and improve patient care outcomes.

Answer 40

A 28-item questionnaire was refined to 25 questions based on statistical validation (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.92). Hyperthyroid cats had a significantly higher median HRQoL score (87.5 vs. 27; P < .001), indicating worse quality of life. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This validated questionnaire reliably quantifies the impact of hyperthyroidism on feline quality-of-life. It may serve as a useful clinical tool for assessing disease burden and monitoring treatment outcomes

Answer 41

In this open-label longitudinal study, canagliflozin (2–4 mg/kg/day PO) was added to insulin therapy for 7 days. Median interstitial glucose (IG) significantly decreased with combination treatment (87 mg/dL) compared to insulin alone (212 mg/dL; P < .001). Fractional excretion of glucose increased (1.1% vs. 0.3%; P = .04). Hypoglycemia was more frequent with combination therapy (19% vs. 4%; P < .001). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Canagliflozin may enhance glycemic control in insulin-treated diabetic dogs, but insulin doses should be reduced to avoid hypoglycemia when initiating therapy.

Answer 42

Although no definitive diagnostic test was identified, dogs with primary ITP had lower platelet counts, D-dimer, and platelet membrane protein expression than those with secondary ITP. Low hematocrit and high BUN predicted non-survival. Transfusion needs were associated with low hematocrit but not platelet count or bleeding score. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Clinicopathologic models may help differentiate primary from secondary ITP and identify dogs at high risk of death or requiring transfusion. Validation in larger cohorts is needed.

Answer 43

An ELISA assay was developed to measure canine thrombopoietin (TPO). In experimentally induced ITP, TPO was markedly elevated (>500 pg/mL). However, only 2 of 58 dogs with spontaneous primary ITP had elevated TPO levels, indicating inadequate thrombopoietic response despite severe thrombocytopenia. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Most dogs with primary ITP exhibit paradoxically low TPO, suggesting impaired thrombopoiesis. This supports exploring TPO receptor agonists as a therapeutic option, similar to treatments used in humans.

Answer 44

No significant differences were found between hydrocortisone and dexamethasone groups in hospitalization duration, electrolyte normalization times, or case fatality rates. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Either dexamethasone boluses or hydrocortisone CRIs can be used to manage adrenal crisis in dogs, with similar short-term clinical outcomes.

Answer 45

Six novel heterozygous COL5A1 variants were identified in dogs with clinical signs of classical Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS), including fragile and hyperextensible skin, joint hypermobility, and atrophic scars. Histological and ultrastructural skin differences were observed across genotypes. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This study documents the genotypic and phenotypic diversity of classical EDS in dogs and identifies six novel COL5A1 variants. These findings expand understanding of disease mechanisms and prognosis for this connective tissue disorder in veterinary medicine.

Answer 46

At Day 3, grapiprant-treated dogs showed significantly lower pain severity scores (2.76 ± 0.18 vs 3.25 ± 0.23; P = .032) and pain interference scores (4.11 ± 0.18 vs 4.69 ± 0.16; P = .013) compared to the meloxicam group. Pain interference was also significantly lower at Day 10 in the grapiprant group (2.23 ± 0.13 vs 2.72 ± 0.28; P = .049). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Grapiprant appears to be an effective alternative to meloxicam for postoperative pain control in dogs following orthopedic surgery. These findings support its use for managing joint pain after TPLO.

Answer 47

Using barometric whole-body plethysmography (BWBP), minute volume per body weight (MV/BW) was significantly higher in cats with respiratory distress (median 397 mL/kg) compared to controls (269 mL/kg). Cats with lower airway obstruction, parenchymal, or pleural space disease showed elevated MV/BW. A cutoff value of 373 mL/kg had 67% sensitivity and 93% specificity for abnormal breathing effort. MV/BW was independently associated with increased cardiorespiratory mortality (HR = 1.17). Conclusions and Clinical Importance BWBP enables noninvasive assessment of breathing effort in cats. MV/BW could serve as a useful prognostic biomarker in cats experiencing respiratory distress.

Answer 48

Cats received either oral or subcutaneous (SC) cyanocobalamin (250 µg/cat) over 10–12 weeks. All cats normalized their serum cobalamin levels. Among 37 cats with elevated methylmalonic acid (MMA), normalization was achieved in 70–82% of cats with CGID and 88% with EPI, regardless of administration route. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Both oral and SC cobalamin supplementation are equally effective in restoring normal cobalamin and MMA levels in hypocobalaminemic cats with CGID or EPI, supporting oral therapy as a convenient alternative.

Answer 49

Oxidative stress was assessed by measuring urinary F2-isoprostanes (uF2-IsoPs) normalized to urinary creatinine. In dogs, uF2-IsoPs declined with CKD progression, with the highest levels in Stage 1 (median 4.7 ng/mg) and the lowest in Stage 4 (0.37 ng/mg). A similar trend was observed in cats, with Stage 1 showing the highest median value (0.97 ng/mg) and Stage 4 the lowest (0.2 ng/mg). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Oxidative stress may be elevated in early stages of CKD in both dogs and cats but appears to decline as the disease progresses. Targeting oxidative stress may be most beneficial in the early stages of CKD.

Answer 50

Hourly blood samples over 24 hours showed clear diurnal variation in serum phosphorus concentration, peaking around 11:00 AM and reaching a nadir around 11:00 PM. The amplitude of variation was approximately 25%. A non-linear relationship was observed between serum phosphorus and ionized calcium concentrations. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Serum phosphorus levels in cats exhibit significant diurnal fluctuation, which may affect clinical interpretation. These findings highlight the importance of considering time of day when evaluating phosphorus and calcium metabolism, especially in CKD management and research contexts.

Answer 51

Three observers evaluated eight segmental reflexes in neurologically normal dogs. The extensor carpi radialis, withdrawal, patellar, and cranial tibial reflexes showed high intraobserver agreement (≥95%) and interobserver agreement (≥92%). Conclusions and Clinical Importance In healthy dogs, the extensor carpi radialis, withdrawal, patellar, and cranial tibial reflexes demonstrate strong observer agreement, supporting their reliability in neurologic evaluations beyond the traditionally emphasized patellar and withdrawal reflexes.

Answer 52

ECS with CP frequently presented with concurrent immune-mediated conditions. Common findings included keratoconjunctivitis sicca (49/104), proteinuria (47/104), anal sac disease (36/104), atopy (21/104), and other autoimmune diseases (16/104). Dogs with parti-colored coats, especially blue roan, were overrepresented, suggesting a link between coat color and immune predisposition. Conclusions and Clinical Importance CP in English Cocker Spaniels shares clinical characteristics with IgG4-related disease in humans, including multi-organ immune involvement. Routine screening for proteinuria, KCS, and other autoimmune markers is warranted in affected ECS.

Answer 53

In this retrospective study, 36% of dogs were fed high-pulse diets (containing pulses such as peas or lentils in top ingredients) and 64% were fed low-pulse diets. No significant differences were found in echocardiographic parameters between diet groups. However, ventricular premature complexes (VPCs) were significantly more common in the high-pulse group (17%) than the low-pulse group (2%) (P = .005), suggesting a potential early cardiac abnormality linked to diet. Conclusions and Clinical Importance High-pulse diets in apparently healthy Irish Wolfhounds were associated with an increased prevalence of VPCs, indicating a possible early dietary impact on cardiac electrical function. Further investigation is warranted.

Answer 54

Dogs with precapillary PH had significantly higher mean ePLAR (0.36) than those with postcapillary PH (0.26; P = .005). A cutoff of <0.245 yielded 86% accuracy (AUC = 0.86), with 71% sensitivity and 100% specificity for identifying isolated postcapillary PH. Conclusions and Clinical Importance ePLAR is a reliable and noninvasive echocardiographic variable for classifying pulmonary hypertension types in dogs

Answer 55

At admission, 95% of dogs had low tT3 and 16% had low tT4. While tT4 normalized quickly, tT3 remained low in 83% of dogs at Day 21. TSH levels increased significantly during recovery (P = .03), and 26% of dogs had transiently elevated TSH levels. No dogs had concurrent low tT4 and high TSH. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Acute illness and recovery can affect thyroid hormone concentrations in euthyroid dogs for up to 3 weeks. Thyroid function testing should be deferred during this period to avoid misdiagnosis.

Answer 56

Compared to dogs with EHPSS, those with IHPSS had significantly more gastrointestinal signs (81% vs 34%; P = .01), anemia (31% vs 6%; P = .01), microcytosis (77% vs 29%; P = .002), and hypochromia (77% vs 49%; P = .03). Additionally, dogs with IHPSS had lower PCV (34% vs 41%; P = .04), hemoglobin (11.5 vs 13.7 g/dL; P = .03), MCV (57 vs 65 fL; P = .001), and MCHC (32 vs 33 g/dL; P = .04). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Dogs with intrahepatic portosystemic shunts show greater hematologic abnormalities and more GI clinical signs compared to those with extrahepatic shunts, which may reflect differences in disease severity and pathophysiology.

Answer 57

Two dogs presented with acute cerebellar signs, including mydriasis, nystagmus, strabismus, and postural reaction deficits. Neuroanatomical localization indicated left-sided cerebellar involvement with paradoxical vestibular syndrome. MRI confirmed infarcts in the left cerebellum affecting the interposital nucleus. Both dogs were managed supportively, and anisocoria resolved by the two-week follow-up. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Cerebellar infarction involving the interposital nucleus can result in ipsilateral mydriasis in dogs. This case series highlights an atypical clinical manifestation of ischemic cerebrovascular disease in veterinary neurology.

Answer 58

Number of Animals 2 female littermate German Shepherd puppies Results Both puppies displayed severe tremors from 9 weeks of age. Histopathology revealed widespread CNS white matter spongiosis, myelin loss, and astrogliosis, resembling Canavan disease in humans. Genetic testing ruled out ASPA gene mutations, suggesting a novel cause for the leukodystrophy. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This report documents a previously undescribed congenital leukodystrophy in German Shepherds that closely mimics Canavan disease, likely caused by an unknown genetic mutation unrelated to ASPA.

Answer 59

Most dogs (55%) recovered hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function within 2–6 days post-treatment, while others took up to 133 days. Recovery was independent of glucocorticoid dose, duration, or tapering regimen. ALT and ALP activities inversely correlated with post-ACTH cortisol levels, and endogenous ACTH correlated with both pre- and post-stimulation cortisol. Conclusions and Clinical Importance While most dogs recover HPA axis function shortly after discontinuing IAGCs, prolonged suppression can occur in some cases.

Answer 60

The most common causes of sciatic nerve injury (SNI) were surgery (42%) and trauma (33%), with wild boar bites contributing to 24% of canine cases. Ability to flex and extend the tarsus was also significantly associated with recovery. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Electrodiagnostic testing, especially CMAP amplitude, can guide prognosis and surgical decision-making.

Answer 61

The dog initially presented with vomiting and intermittent hematemesis. Over 14 months, sequential biopsies revealed progression from a benign gastric polyp to minimally invasive carcinoma and eventually to invasive gastric adenocarcinoma. Neurologic signs developed later, and necropsy confirmed widespread carcinomatosis including leptomeningeal metastasis. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This case documents the rare transformation of a gastric polyp into adenocarcinoma with central nervous system metastasis in a dog, a phenomenon well-described in humans but previously unreported in veterinary literature. It highlights the potential for malignancy in gastric polyps and the need for careful monitoring

Answer 62

Only 3.5% of dogs with follow-up data developed insulin-treated diabetes mellitus (ITDM), including 0.4% of those with moderate hyperglycemia (BGC 144–199 mg/dL) and 0.2% with pronounced hyperglycemia (≥200 mg/dL). There was no correlation between the degree of hyperglycemia and the time to ITDM onset. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Randomly identified hyperglycemia alone is a poor predictor of future insulin dependence in dogs.

Answer 63

Neither test showed significant association with CVA diagnosis (P = .38 for D-dimer, P = .2 for TEG). D-dimer had low sensitivity (30.8%) but high specificity (86.4%), while TEG had moderate sensitivity (64.3%) and specificity (66.7%). Neither test distinguished ischemic from hemorrhagic stroke. Conclusions and Clinical Importance D-dimer and TEG are not diagnostic for CVAs in dogs but may support further testing. Positive D-dimer results could suggest the need for additional imaging or investigation in suspected stroke cases

Answer 64

Zonisamide was generally well tolerated; mild adverse effects included sedation (17%), hyporexia (17%), ataxia (11%), and emesis (5%). A few cats developed mild nonregenerative anemia, metabolic acidosis, or elevated liver enzymes. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Zonisamide appears to be an effective and safe antiepileptic option in cats, especially for those intolerant of phenobarbital or requiring adjunctive therapy.

Answer 65

Dogs with MMVD and PH exhibited increased platelet surface P-selectin expression (P = .03), heightened platelet activation, and greater numbers of platelet-leukocyte (P = .01) and platelet-neutrophil aggregates (P = .01) compared to controls. Thromboelastography and plasma serotonin levels did not differ between groups. Conclusions and Clinical Importance These findings suggest that platelet hyperactivity and inflammatory platelet-neutrophil interactions contribute to the pathogenesis of PH in dogs with MMVD.

Answer 66

Neurologic scores increased in 50% of both age groups after administration, mostly due to postural reaction deficits and gait changes. Sedation increased in both groups (P = .004), while anxiety reduction was only significant in geriatric cats (P < .01). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Gabapentin induces mild, reversible neurologic changes and sedation in cats, with greater effects observed in geriatric patients. Dose adjustment should be considered when using gabapentin for pre-examination anxiolysis in older cats.

Answer 67

IVP was significantly associated with obtundation (OR 4.64), head tilt (OR 6.42), and nystagmus (OR 8.24). Syringomyelia was associated with pain (OR 3.4) and number of affected ventricles (OR 12.74). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Not all MRI findings predict high IVP in dogs with hydrocephalus. Clinical signs and specific imaging findings should be used in combination to assess disease severity and guide treatment decisions.

Answer 68

The most common diagnosis among the cohort was vasovagal syncope (14%), followed by arrhythmias such as sick sinus syndrome or third-degree AV block (3%).. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Hypoadrenocorticism is an uncommon cause of collapse in dogs. Clinicians should be cautious in interpreting low resting cortisol without confirmatory testing, particularly in otherwise stable patients.

Answer 69

Conclusions and Clinical Importance Advanced analytical tools like Poincaré density plots and machine learning can accurately identify sinus node dysfunction, distinguishing it from autonomic causes of bradycardia. These tools may improve diagnosis and understanding of conduction abnormalities in veterinary cardiology.

Answer 70

Conclusions and Clinical Importance Client recall of discharge information is incomplete, especially in older clients. Emphasis should be placed on reinforcing critical instructions, particularly those related to medication and home care.

Answer 71

Conclusions and Clinical Importance Serum NfL is a promising adjunctive biomarker to differentiate structural from idiopathic epilepsy in dogs, with potential diagnostic and monitoring applications

Answer 72

Conclusions and Clinical Importance Juvenile-onset MUE carries a poor prognosis. Despite treatment, mortality is high, and long-term survival is limited, highlighting the need for early diagnosis and potentially novel therapeutic strategies.

Answer 73

Amlodipine significantly increased multiple plasma RAAS biomarkers compared to placebo: renin (median +44%; P = .009), angiotensin I (+59%; P = .006), angiotensin II (+56%; P = .023), angiotensin IV (+42%; P = .013), and angiotensin 1–7 (+38%; P = .015). These changes reflect activation of both classical and alternative RAAS pathways. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Amlodipine administration in healthy cats leads to a generalized upregulation of the RAAS system. This could have implications for its chronic use in hypertensive feline patients, warranting further investigation.

Answer 74

Survival to discharge was 82% and 63.5% were alive at 6 months, although 36% of these had persistent neurologic deficits. Negative predictors of 6-month survival included being a pug (P = .03), epileptic seizures (P < .001), paresis (P < .001), and higher neurodisability scale (NDS) scores (P < .001). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Certain clinical features, including breed and neurologic severity at presentation, impact prognosis in dogs with MUO. This information can inform clinician decision-making and guide client communication about outcomes.

Answer 75

A 7-month-old French bulldog presented with ataxia, paresis, and strabismus. MRI revealed ventriculomegaly, cerebral atrophy, widened sulci, and bilateral thyroid masses. Bloodwork showed low TT4 and FT4 with normal TSH. Genetic testing confirmed a thyroid peroxidase mutation consistent with congenital hypothyroidism. Clinical signs improved rapidly with levothyroxine treatment. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Congenital hypothyroidism should be considered in young brachycephalic dogs with neurologic signs and craniofacial abnormalities. MRI findings and genetic confirmation aid diagnosis, and prompt treatment can lead to rapid improvement.

Answer 76

prevalence of discospondylitis was significantly higher in French bulldogs (3.4×; P < .001) and English bulldogs (4.3×; P < .001) compared to the general hospital population. Congenital vertebral malformations were present in 92.3% of French bulldogs and 75.0% of English bulldogs with discospondylitis. The infection often occurred adjacent to the malformed vertebrae. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Congenital vertebral malformations may predispose young French and English bulldogs to discospondylitis, reinforcing the need for early imaging and evaluation in these breeds presenting with spinal signs.

Answer 77

Aerophagia was identified in 40% of dogs undergoing VFSS, with higher incidence in dogs showing mixed gastrointestinal and respiratory signs (58.3%; P < .001), brachycephalic breeds (45.8%; P = .01), and those with upper airway obstruction (33.3%; P < .001). Dogs with pathologic penetration-aspiration (P-A) scores and gagging also had higher aerophagia rates. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Aerophagia is common in dogs, particularly in brachycephalic breeds and those with concurrent GI and respiratory signs. It may increase aspiration risk, underscoring the need for comprehensive airway and swallowing assessments in affected patients.

Answer 78

This prospective case-control study assessed how acclimatization time affects barometric whole-body plethysmography (BWBP) readings in cats. A 30-minute dataset was recorded per cat, split into three 10-minute periods. In cats with LAD, variables such as pause, peak inspiratory and expiratory flow (PIF, PEF), and PEF/EF50 changed significantly between the first and third periods (P < .01). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Acclimatization time significantly influences BWBP variables in cats, particularly in those with LAD. Proper standardization and manual correction of flow-volume data are critical for reliable interpretation

Answer 79

The incidence of TRs was 8.9% (95% CI: 7.0–11.1) for packed red blood cells (pRBCs) and 4.5% (95% CI: 2.9–6.6) for plasma. Febrile non-hemolytic transfusion reactions (FNHTRs) were the most common TR with pRBCs (4.0%), and allergic reactions were most frequent with plasma (3.2%). Higher pRBC doses increased TR risk (aOR 1.04), and storage of pRBCs >28 days significantly raised the odds of FNHTR (aOR 4.10) and acute hemolytic TR (OR 15.2). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Transfusion reactions in dogs are relatively common and influenced by pRBC storage duration and dose. Clinicians should consider these factors when prescribing blood products.

Answer 80

revealing significantly higher BBBP in the piriform lobe of IE dogs versus controls (34.5% vs. 26.5%; P = .02). Increased MMP9 activity was detected in serum, CSF, and brain tissue of IE dogs. Gene expression of tight junction proteins (claudin-5) and astrocytic potassium channels (Kir4.1) was significantly downregulated in IE dogs. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Dogs with idiopathic epilepsy show blood-brain barrier dysfunction associated with MMP9 upregulation and reduced expression of tight junction proteins.

Answer 81

Urinary syndecan-1 (SDC1) levels increased significantly post-anesthesia in all dogs, though no difference was observed between anesthetic agents. The only variable significantly affecting the SDC1-to-creatinine ratio (USCR) was the volume of IV lactated Ringer’s solution administered Conclusions and Clinical Importance Urinary SDC1 increases following anesthesia, and fluid volume is a key determinant of its concentration. This highlights potential glycocalyx disruption during anesthesia

Answer 82

In-hospital mortality was 21.5%, with financial constraints, aspiration pneumonia, and failure to improve being the most common causes of death. Risk factors for mortality included longer duration of hospitalization, longer duration of clinical signs , and increased CRP concentrations after 1–3 days of treatment. Pugs had a significantly higher mortality risk (OR 4.93; P = .01), commonly from aspiration pneumonia.

Answer 83

Median progression-free survival (PFS) was 196 days for CHOP-19 and 209 days for CHOP-25. Median overall survival (OS) was 302 days and 321 days, respectively. No statistically significant differences in PFS or OS were found between the two protocols. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Both CHOP-19 and CHOP-25 protocols yielded similar clinical outcomes in dogs with PNBCL.

Answer 84

Initially, 45% were categorized as food-responsive enteropathy (FRE), 50% as immunomodulator-responsive (IRE), and 5% as nonresponsive (NRE). No dogs were antibiotic-responsive (ARE). At follow-up, 73% were reclassified as FRE, 23% remained IRE, and only 3% were NRE. In 40% of cases, the category changed—most commonly from IRE to FRE (79%). Importantly, 63% of dogs classified as FRE had failed at least one prior diet trial, and only 3% of dogs received immunosuppressants alone as initial treatment. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Initial classification of CIE in dogs may change over time. Many dogs initially labeled as IRE might have responded to dietary trials alone, suggesting diet trials should be more extensively pursued before immunosuppressive therapy. .

Answer 85

There were no significant differences between CE dogs and healthy controls in observed abnormalities, including mucosal irregularities, erythema, erosions, or dilated lacteals. Conclusions and Clinical Importance ALICAM capsule endoscopy is a safe, noninvasive tool for evaluating GI morphology in dogs >10 kg. However, gross endoscopic findings did not differ significantly between CE and healthy dogs, indicating a limited diagnostic yield from visual inspection alone.

Answer 86

An 8-year-old Leonberger with a history of immunosuppressive treatment presented with acute dyspnea, cyanosis, and weakness. Intravenous monteplase was administered on Days 14 and 18, resulting in dramatic improvement by Day 20. Echocardiographic measures of pulmonary hypertension continued to improve, and the dog remained stable 400 days later on long-term antithrombotic and vasodilator therapy. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Combined antithrombotic and vasodilator therapy, including monteplase, may be effective for managing pulmonary thrombotic hypertension in dogs.

Answer 87

Agreement with cardiologist echocardiography was moderate overall (Fleiss’ kappa 0.54; 95% CI: 0.39–0.69; P < .001). Accuracy was significantly higher in dogs with heart measurements below threshold values (97%) compared to those above (54%;). Agreement improved when heart enlargement was more pronounced. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Veterinary students can moderately differentiate stages of subclinical MMVD using FCU.

Answer 88

Sixteen of 22 (73%) dogs treated with renal replacement therapy (RRT) survived to discharge. Of those, 81% survived >30 days and 75% survived >6 months post-discharge. Non-survivors had significantly more body systems affected and higher median maximum bilirubin (21.0 mg/dL). There were no significant differences in maximum BUN or creatinine levels between survivors and non-survivors. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Despite the severity of azotemia, dogs with AKI-L undergoing RRT have a good short- and medium-term prognosis. Multisystem involvement and hyperbilirubinemia are potential negative prognostic indicators.

Answer 89

A 14-year-old spayed female Miniature Pinscher presented with tongue curling, dysphagia, hypersalivation, and sublingual gland swelling. MRI showed a multilobed CSF-like cyst in the occipito-atlanto-axial joint compressing the hypoglossal canal. The cyst was hyperintense on T2-weighted and fluid-attenuated inversion recovery images. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Ganglion cysts of the atlanto-occipital joint can cause cranial nerve deficits and should be considered in differential diagnoses for compatible clinical and MRI findings.

Answer 90

ATE cats showed significantly reduced clot firmness markers, including lower alpha angle (median 43° vs 47°), A10 (19 vs 22 units), A20 (24.5 vs 29 units), and MCF (29.5 vs 33.5 units). No significant differences were observed in clot time (CT), clot formation time (CFT), or lysis indices (LI30 and LI45). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Cats with cardiogenic ATE display VCM profiles consistent with hypocoagulability rather than the expected hypercoagulable state. This raises questions about the pathophysiology of thrombosis in feline ATE and the role of clot strength in thrombus formation

Answer 91

At 7, 30, and 100 days, treatment failure occurred in 20%, 26%, and 43% of dogs in the steroid-only group versus 24%, 32%, and 68% in the combined group, respectively. Mortality at 100 days was not significantly different (P = .62). No major treatment-related adverse events were observed. Conclusions and Clinical Importance No outcome difference was observed between corticosteroid monotherapy and combined cytarabine CRI therapy in MUO dogs. These findings support the use of corticosteroids alone as a valid initial treatment option

Answer 92

Serum C3 and C4 concentrations were significantly higher in dogs with IE (C3 median: 4.90 mg/mL; C4: 0.33 mg/mL) compared to healthy controls (C3: 3.55 mg/mL; C4: 0.27 mg/mL). No differences were observed between treatment and non-treatment groups. Dogs with more frequent seizures (>3/month) had higher C3 and C4 levels than those with less frequent seizures Conclusions and Clinical Importance Complement pathway dysregulation was observed in dogs with idiopathic epilepsy, particularly in those with frequent seizures. Serum C3 and C4 may serve as potential biomarkers for seizure severity in IE.

Answer 93

Clinical presentations included generalized myopathy (6 dogs), multifocal intracranial disease (7), myelopathy (4), polyneuropathy (2), and single cases of focal myopathy and cerebellar disease. Serum creatine kinase was markedly elevated (median 3369 U/L). MRI findings commonly included multifocal brain lesions (7/13) and muscle abnormalities (5/13). Complete response to treatment occurred in 8 dogs, partial in 6, and minimal in 7. Thirteen dogs (62%) survived beyond 6 months and 12 (57%) beyond 1 year. Relapses occurred in 4 dogs.

Answer 94

Of the 51 deep pain-positive dogs, 96% (49/51) recovered ambulation within the study period. Among the 21 deep pain-negative dogs, 48% (10/21) regained the ability to walk. Median recovery times were 11 and 25 days, respectively. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Conservative management of thoracolumbar disk extrusion can result in functional recovery in a high proportion of dogs, even without full resolution of spinal cord compression. Conservative therapy may be a valid alternative in selected cases, especially when surgery is not feasible.

Answer 95

Diarrhea was the most common clinical sign (65%), followed by vomiting (39%), weight loss (39%), and inappetence (26%). Notably, 13% of cats showed no GI signs at diagnosis. Imaging frequently showed colonic shortening and thickening (79%), while colonoscopy revealed mucosal ulceration in 39% of examined cats. Histopathology indicated lymphoplasmacytic colitis in nearly all cases, and many also had concurrent small intestinal disease such as lymphoplasmacytic enteritis or small cell lymphoma.

Answer 96

MRI revealed a strongly contrast-enhancing, intraparenchymal spinal cord mass at C5 with internal susceptibility artifact. Postmortem examination identified a hemangiosarcoma arising from a hemangioma in the cervical spinal cord, with no evidence of systemic disease. This represents a rare primary location for hemangiosarcoma, typically considered metastatic in origin.

Answer 97

Brainstem auditory evoked responses were used to evaluate hearing in 40 white Devon Rex cats (median age: 19 weeks). Sensorineural deafness (CSD) was found in 10% of cats. Unilateral and bilateral deafness were equally represented (5% each). Conclusions and Clinical Importance The prevalence of congenital sensorineural deafness in white Devon Rex cats was lower than previously reported for purebred cats. No associations with iris color or sex were observed, challenging assumptions from prior studies.

Answer 98

Twenty-nine percent (53/180) of dogs had low blood taurine concentrations (B-TauC). Of these, 25% showed clinical and radiographic signs of congestive heart failure (CHF), including increased left ventricular dimensions and impaired systolic function. Retinal abnormalities were seen in 9%. Multivariable analysis showed dietary methionine content (D-MetC), red vs. white meat protein source, and age were significantly associated with B-TauC Conclusions and Clinical Importance Taurine deficiency may contribute to myocardial dysfunction in ECS. Diets low in methionine or containing red meat as the primary protein source were linked to lower B-TauC.

Answer 99

An 18-year-old male neutered cat developed urothelial carcinoma (UC) at the site of a long-term indwelling cystostomy tube from a subcutaneous ureteral bypass (SUB) device placed for right-sided ureterolithiasis. Thirteen months post-implant, the cat showed persistent urinary signs and a bladder mass near the SUB tube. Histopathology of the mass confirmed UC. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This is the first reported case of UC developing at the site of a long-term indwelling cystostomy catheter in a cat. Chronic irritation or inflammation may contribute, warranting further investigation in long-term urinary implant cases.

Answer 100

Bone marrow plasmacytosis, splenic, and hepatic infiltration were present in 63%, 86%, and 71% of cases, respectively. Anemia and thrombocytopenia were common (67% and 34%). Cats were treated with melphalan-prednisolone (n = 19), cyclophosphamide-prednisolone (n = 10), or chlorambucil-prednisolone (n = 4). Response rates were high across all regimens (87–100%), but melphalan had higher adverse event rates (65%). Median survival was 122 days and was negatively associated with anemia (HR 3.1) and thrombocytopenia (HR 2.7). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Myeloma-related disorders in cats carry a guarded prognosis. Anemia and thrombocytopenia are significant negative prognostic markers

Answer 101

No significant changes occurred in CBC, biochemistry, CRP, cytokines (IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α), leukocyte subsets, or fecal dysbiosis index over 28 days. Mild, self-limiting adverse events included vomiting (n = 3), diarrhea (n = 4), inappetence (n = 1), and reduced activity (n = 2). Conclusions and Clinical Importance FMT was well tolerated in healthy dogs with no clinically significant immune or hematologic changes

Answer 102

MRI confirmed left-sided paramedian thalamic ischemic infarcts. The esotropia was hypothesized to result from disruption of descending inhibitory pathways decussating in the subthalamic region, leading to unopposed medial rectus activation via the oculomotor nerve. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Resting medial strabismus can be a rare but highly localizing neurologic sign for contralateral thalamic infarction in dogs.

Answer 103

One non-treated dog developed fatal pancarditis, and another developed T. cruzi infection with cardiac arrhythmias and high troponin I, improving after a higher-dose benznidazole regimen. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Although limited by sample size, this case series supports the potential value of modified benznidazole dosing for prophylaxis or early treatment of T. cruzi in dogs.

Answer 104

4-chamber bullet method had the best intraobserver repeatability. Critical change values (CCVs) for RF_MR ranged from 28% to 88% depending on the method and observer. Interobserver agreement was low (intraclass correlation 0.210–0.413). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Echocardiographic RF_MR calculations show low reproducibility and high variability,

Answer 105

Both drugs inhibited thrombin generation similarly. No significant changes in D-dimer, thrombin-antithrombin complexes, or antithrombin activity were observed post-discontinuation. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Apixaban and rivaroxaban exhibit comparable anticoagulant effects in dogs. There was no evidence of rebound hypercoagulability after discontinuation, suggesting gradual tapering may not be necessary in clinical settings.

Answer 106

Dogs with unilateral or bilateral nephrolithiasis or ureterolithiasis were managed medically using diet, antibiotics, and double-pigtail ureteral stents where indicated. Staphylococcus pseudintermedius was isolated in all cases. Median pH was 7.25. Dissolution began at a median of 1.1 months. Complete dissolution occurred at 3.9 months (ureteroliths), 5.3 months (nephroliths), and 0.87 months (lower tract uroliths). Median follow-up was 519 days.

Answer 107

Transmural T-cell lymphomas were most common (62.7%), and 43.1% of mesenteric lymph nodes showed neoplastic infiltration. In small cell lymphoma, 70.8% of cases had no nodal involvement. Clonality testing confirmed 63.3% of selected reactive nodes. However, concerns about false results and reliance on nodal phenotype alone were raised. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Mesenteric lymph node biopsies may not reliably diagnose intestinal lymphoma, particularly in small cell types. Full-thickness intestinal biopsies remain critical for accurate diagnosis and staging.

Answer 108

SDMA concentrations were measured using LC-MS/MS (gold standard) and ELISA. LC-MS/MS had high precision. ELISA yielded significantly higher SDMA values Conclusions and Clinical Importance ELISA overestimates SDMA compared to LC-MS/MS, emphasizing the need for method-specific RIs. Age-specific RIs for older dogs are higher than current general laboratory RIs.

Answer 109

One cat developed aldosterone resistance secondary to chronic kidney disease after an acute injury, treated successfully with oral furosemide. The second had transient aldosterone resistance from a UTI associated with catheterization, resolved with antibiotics. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Feline pseudohypoaldosteronism can result from kidney disease or infection, mimicking hyperkalemic type IV RTA.

Answer 110

An 11-year-old female spayed Labrador Retriever presented with lethargy, hyporexia, and cough. Bloodwork revealed neutrophilia, nonregenerative anemia, thrombocytopenia, and elevated liver enzymes. Aerobic blood cultures isolated Francisella philomiragia. The dog was treated with oral enrofloxacin for 6 weeks. Follow-up cultures at 2 and 6 weeks were negative, and the dog remained clinically normal 7 months post-treatment. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This is the first reported case of successfully treated systemic F. philomiragia infection in a dog. A 6-week course of oral enrofloxacin achieved microbiological and clinical cure without relapse.

Answer 111

The algorithm detected murmurs with 87.9% sensitivity and 81.7% specificity. It exactly matched cardiologist murmur grades in 57% of cases. A machine-learning model originally trained on human heart sounds can accurately detect and grade canine murmurs and help stage MMVD. It offers a low-cost, scalable screening tool for primary care veterinary settings.

Answer 112

Euthanasia was attributed to UC in 85% (50/59) of dogs, with 62% of those cases due to local tumor progression. Of the latter, 77% were perceived to have urinary obstruction. Metastatic disease was present in 56% of cases, but only 38% of UC-related deaths were due to metastasis. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Local disease progression—particularly urinary obstruction—is the leading cause of euthanasia in treated dogs with UC.

Answer 113

There was significant and sustained depletion of peripheral CD21+ B-cells CD5+ T-cells remained stable. At Day 196, only 35% of dogs had >50% recovery of baseline B-cell counts. The antibody was well tolerated, with only one mild hypersensitivity reaction. Conclusions and Clinical Importance The 1E4-clgGB anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody is safe and produces durable B-cell depletion in dogs with DLBCL, supporting its potential as an immunotherapeutic option.

Answer 114

Serum cobalamin and cTLI at 2 and 4 hours postprandially were statistically equivalent to baseline. Folate at 2 hours postprandial was also equivalent to baseline. However, feeding altered the clinical interpretation in 27% (cobalamin), 35% (folate), 20% (cTLI), and 12% (cPLI) of dogs. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Although most postprandial concentrations were statistically equivalent to fasting values, clinical interpretation changed in a substantial number of dogs. Therefore, fasting before testing remains prudent

Answer 115

Conclusions and Clinical Importance Leukoreduction mitigates metabolic storage lesions in canine pRBCs by preserving energy metabolism and reducing oxidative stress. This supports its use to enhance the quality of stored blood products.

Answer 116

MRI revealed a diffusely small cerebellum. Histopathology post-euthanasia confirmed marked thinning of the granular layer and nearly complete loss of granular neurons, consistent with granuloprival cerebellar cortical degeneration. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Granuloprival cerebellar cortical degeneration should be considered in young Yorkshire Terriers and Lagotto Romagnolos with progressive cerebellar signs. MRI and histopathology are essential for definitive diagnosis.

Answer 117

Dogs with higher baseline cPLI (>400 µg/L) showed higher CRP (median 111.9 mg/L), MCAI (10), and worse owner-assessed health. However, these variables were not statistically different compared to dogs with lower cPLI (<400 µg/L). In high cPLI dogs, both cPLI and MCAI declined rapidly, but sonographic changes resolved more slowly. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Persistent ultrasonographic signs of pancreatitis despite normalizing clinical and biochemical markers may represent resolving rather than active disease.

Answer 118

Hyperthyroid cats showed significantly higher clot amplitude and firmness (VCM A10, A20, MCF; ROTEM A10, A20, MCF; all P ≤ .03), faster clotting times (ROTEM EXTEM and FIBTEM CT; P ≤ .003), and increased alpha angle (EXTEM; P = .01). No significant differences were observed in platelet function via WBPIA. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Hyperthyroid cats exhibited a hypercoagulable profile via viscoelastic assays, characterized by stronger and faster clot formation.

Answer 119

Initial screening reclassified 21% of cats as unhealthy, with common findings including IRIS stage 2 CKD (7.7%) and hyperthyroidism (4.6%). Overweight (40%), dental disease (35%), and cardiac murmurs (22%) were common. Over 2 years, 28% of mature adults and 54% of senior cats developed new diseases. Most frequent diagnoses included CKD (13.4%), hyperthyroidism (8.5%), chronic enteropathy/hepatopathy/pancreatitis (7.5%), and neoplasia (7%). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Many mature and senior cats initially considered healthy develop significant conditions within 2 years, underscoring the importance of early detection and ongoing monitoring.

Answer 120

Dogs with pCKD had significantly higher baseline levels of Ang I, III, 1-5, 1-7, and urinary aldosterone-to-creatinine ratio (UACR) compared to healthy controls. After 30 days, telmisartan increased serum Ang II and Ang 1-7 significantly more than enalapril (P < .001), while both drugs lowered aldosterone levels (enalapril P = .02, telmisartan P < .001). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Dogs with pCKD exhibit increased RAAS activity. Telmisartan therapy leads to a significantly greater increase in potentially beneficial Ang 1-7 levels compared to enalapril, supporting its role as a preferred RAAS inhibitor in these patients.

Answer 121

Whole-genome sequencing found homozygous missense variants in the mitochondrial MECR gene in all three dogs and additional ATG4D variants in two dogs. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This study describes a progressive hereditary polioencephalopathy in Eurasier dogs linked to a likely pathogenic variant in the MECR gene. Findings contribute to understanding of metabolic polioencephalopathies and underscore the value of genetic screening in affected breeds.

Answer 122

No significant effects of the high-salt diet were observed on glomerular filtration rate (GFR), blood pressure, cardiac structure/function (via Doppler and tissue imaging), or plasma creatinine. One cat from the high-salt group developed persistent azotemia, and two cats from each group showed early CKD signs consistent with necropsy findings. Conclusions and Clinical Importance A commercial veterinary diet containing a high sodium concentration was safe for up to 5 years in healthy aged cats, with no adverse renal or cardiac effects.

Answer 123

Total thyroxine (TT4) varied significantly across estrous stages, peaking during estrus and diestrus. TT4 was positively correlated with progesterone and negatively with estradiol. Free T4 showed no significant fluctuations but also correlated positively with progesterone. TSH correlated positively with estradiol. No significant hormone differences were found between pregnancy and pseudopregnancy. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Thyroid hormone concentrations, especially TT4, fluctuate with the estrous cycle in female dogs, which may impact interpretation of thyroid testing in breeding bitches.

Answer 124

Elevated serum IGF-1 (1783 ng/mL) and imaging identified a pituitary mass. The dog developed diabetes mellitus prior to transsphenoidal hypophysectomy. Postoperatively, histopathology confirmed a GH-secreting pituitary adenoma. Clinical signs of hypersomatotropism resolved rapidly, though diabetes mellitus persisted. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This is the first documented case of successful surgical resolution of canine hypersomatotropism via transsphenoidal hypophysectomy. The approach was effective in controlling GH excess despite ongoing diabetes.

Answer 125

All dogs achieved resolution of hypercalcemia after chemotherapy, and 79.3% (23/29) resolved azotemia. Higher serum creatinine (OR 0.15; P = .02) and calcium (OR 0.36; P = .04) at diagnosis negatively impacted azotemia resolution. Only 15% of deceased dogs had renal disease at death. Conclusions and Clinical Importance AKI is common in dogs with HM and lymphoma, but often resolves with treatment. Long-term renal disease appears to be a minor contributor to mortality in these cases.

Answer 126

A decreased level of consciousness was common in affected animals. Mortality was higher among animals with NCS (73%) or NCSE (67%) than those with no EEG seizure activity (27%). Conclusions and Clinical Importance NCS and NCSE are common and often underdiagnosed in dogs and cats with cluster seizures.

Answer 127

Only 1 of 112 dogs was diagnosed with eunatremic, eukalemic hypoadrenocorticism (EEH), for a prevalence of 0.9% PGA dogs had significantly lower CRP-to-haptoglobin ratios (P = .01) and higher haptoglobin (P = .002). eACTH was higher in EEH dogs (median 396 pg/mL), and cortisol-to-ACTH ratios were significantly lower in EEH vs. non-PGA and PGA groups (P < .0001 and P = .01). Conclusions and Clinical Importance EEH is rare in dogs with chronic GI signs. Key biomarkers such as eACTH and the cortisol-to-ACTH ratio can improve diagnostic accuracy, especially in dogs with uncertain steroid histories.

Answer 128

Two CpG markers near FAM213A and PHLPP1 (DMC-F and DMC-P) were validated. In the larger validation group, dogs with DMC-F methylation <40% had improved MST (11–1072 vs. 8–1792 days; P = .01). Those with both DMC-F <40% and DMC-P <10% showed even better prognosis (P = .009). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Methylation levels of specific CpG sites may serve as prognostic biomarkers in canine MHGL

Answer 129

In Stage B2 dogs, MRSI >156 predicted shorter time to CHF (407 vs. 1404 days) and MRSI >173 predicted all-cause death (868 vs. 1843 days). MRSI was not consistently predictive in Stage C dogs. Conclusions and Clinical Importance MRSI is a valuable prognostic tool for predicting CHF onset and survival in Stage B2 MMVD.

Answer 130

17.9% (27/151) of dogs with primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) had elevated serum gastrin concentrations before treatment Post-treatment, PTH and iCa decreased significantly (P < .001), but gastrin concentrations did not (P = .15). The presence of GI signs was not associated with hypergastrinemia (P = 1.00). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Hypergastrinemia can occur in dogs with PHPT, but it is generally mild and not associated with gastrointestinal symptoms. It does not appear to improve after PHPT treatment.

Answer 131

Cats had a median age of 5.4 years, and common breeds included Ragdoll (25%) and Exotic Shorthair (10%). Clinical signs included weight loss (60%), hyporexia (55%), and chronic vomiting (37%). Masses were most often found in the small intestine (32%) and stomach (27%). Eosinophilia was present in 50% and hypoalbuminemia in 28%. Surgery was performed in 37% of cases, and nearly all cats (98%) received corticosteroids. Survival did not differ significantly between surgical and medical management. At time of writing, 88% were still alive.

Answer 132

Non-survivors had significantly higher APPLEfast (mean 24.6 vs. 20.9) and APPLEfull (mean 45.2 vs. 41.7) scores than survivors. APPLEfast predicted mortality (P = .03); for each 1-unit increase, odds of death rose by 1.08. Blood glucose (BG) levels were also higher in non-survivors (median 431 vs. 343 mg/dL), and predicted mortality (P = .02). Optimal mortality cutoffs were 24.5 for APPLEfast and 358 mg/dL for BG. Conclusions and Clinical Importance APPLEfast and BG levels predict mortality in cats with DKA and can be useful tools for risk stratification in clinical trials and patient management.

Answer 133

Response rates, complications, hospitalization length, and relapse rates were not significantly different across groups at 14, 30, and 60 days. However, the MM-group had significantly higher mortality than the MC-group at 60 days (+42.8%) and 365 days (+50%). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Adding cyclosporine or mycophenolate to steroids did not improve response rates in naIMHA. Mycophenolate was associated with higher mortality, suggesting it should be used with caution.

Answer 134

Dogs with CIE had significantly higher peripheral activated T helper (Th) lymphocytes and regulatory T cells (Treg) compared to healthy controls. In intestinal samples, dogs with CIE had lower percentages of Th cells, activated Th cells, and a reduced CD4/CD8 ratio in the epithelium. Conversely, activated cytotoxic T cells and IFN-γ producing T cells were elevated in the epithelium, and Treg cells were increased in the lamina propria. Conclusions and Clinical Importance CIE in dogs is associated with systemic and mucosal immune alterations. Peripheral IFN-γ producing T cells and systemic immune-inflammation index (SII) may serve as potential biomarkers for diagnosis or monitoring.

Answer 135

Pugs were the most represented breed (5/10). EEG performed in 3 dogs revealed interictal spikes in frontotemporal or frontoparietal areas. All dogs responded positively to anti-seizure medications (ASMs), with at least 50% reduction in episode frequency or complete resolution. Conclusions and Clinical Importance vestibular epilepsy in dogs appears to be a distinct, idiopathic condition with a favorable prognosis.

Answer 136

Thirteen dogs had neuromuscular signs only, while 3 also had CNS involvement. Serology was positive (>1:160) in 10/15 tested dogs. PCR on muscle confirmed Neospora caninum in 11/16 cases. Immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization (ISH) each identified N. caninum in 9/16 samples. Histopathology revealed inflammatory or necrotizing myopathy in most cases, with tachyzoites in 9/16. Diagnostic confirmation used multiple modalities—4 dogs were positive by all 5 methods, 3 by four, and others by fewer. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Serology combined with histopathology or PCR offers a practical and reliable diagnostic strategy.

Answer 137

This study assessed steroidogenic enzyme expression in adrenal tumors using immunohistochemistry. CYP11A1, CYP11B, and HSD3B2 were present throughout adrenal cortices; CYP17 was restricted to zona fasciculata/reticularis. No statistically significant differences were found in enzyme expression between cortisol-producing and nonfunctional tumors for CYP11A1 (P = .69), CYP11B (P = .07), CYP17 (P = .40), or HSD3B2 (P = .34). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Functionality cannot be inferred based on enzyme expression or tumor size.

Answer 138

Urinary iodine concentration spiked 37- to 884-fold on Day 1, returning to baseline by Week 2. Statistically significant elevations in iodine persisted through Day 7, with urinary iodine-to-creatinine ratios elevated through Day 10. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Urinary iodine levels normalize by 10 days post-contrast in healthy cats. A 2-week wait between iodinated contrast studies and radioactive iodine therapy may be appropriate but needs validation in hyperthyroid cats.

Answer 139

Eight circulating microRNAs were significantly differentially expressed in affected dogs, including cfa-miR-221, cfa-miR-222, cfa-miR-23a, and cfa-miR-205. Seven were upregulated, and one (mmu-miR-101a-3p) was downregulated. Conclusions and Clinical Importance These microRNAs may serve as novel diagnostic biomarkers for canine pancreatitis and warrant further validation.

Answer 140

No overall differences were found in MMVD severity between dogs with and without SM. However, CKCS with symptomatic SM had significantly smaller left ventricular (LVIDDN) and left atrial (LA/Ao) dimensions compared to asymptomatic SM dogs and those without SM (P < .03). Conclusions and Clinical Importance MMVD and SM do not appear to be linked conditions in CKCS.

Answer 141

Cats with chronic inflammatory enteropathy (CIE) had significantly lower sodium, higher potassium, and lower sodium:potassium ratios than healthy cats Duodenal and colonic mucosal fibrosis scores correlated with electrolyte abnormalities. Cats with higher fibrosis had lower sodium and total calcium or higher potassium and lower Na:K ratios. Cats that died from CIE had significantly higher potassium and lower Na:K ratios (P = .02, P = .01).

Answer 142

Conclusions and Clinical Importance Decreased GC volume is linked with lateralization of epileptiform activity. Semiautomated MRI volumetry provides reliable insight into structural brain changes in canine epilepsy.

Answer 143

Serum chloride (71.6–103.1 mmol/L) inversely correlated with serum angiotensin I and II, aldosterone, and surrogate markers of RAAS activity and adrenal response. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This case supports a link between hypochloremia and RAAS dysregulation in advanced CHF. Chloride levels may be a useful indicator of hormonal imbalances in heart failure.

Answer 144

In dogs, DUR (dipstick) correlated moderately with UPCR and was unaffected by glucosuria, pH, or active sediments. A DUR cutoff of 1.4 predicted a UPCR >0.5 with 89% sensitivity and 83% specificity. In cats, a DUR of 2.1 predicted UPCR >0.4 with 70% sensitivity and 100% specificity.

Answer 145

PCCs had a dominant norepinephrine phenotype (88%) and decreased tissue epinephrine (12%) compared to normal adrenal glands. PCC tissues also had significantly lower fumarate and malate and higher citrate. One dog showed a 25-fold elevated succinate:fumarate ratio suggestive of an SDHx mutation.

Answer 146

In healthy cats, urine anion gap (UAG) negatively correlated with the urine ammonia-to-creatinine ratio (UACR) No correlation was found in CKD cats. UAG was significantly different between groups, with CKD cats showing higher UAG values. Conclusions and Clinical Importance UAG cannot substitute for UACR in assessing ammonia excretion in cats. While UAG differs in CKD cats, its clinical utility remains unclear.

Answer 147

Median normalized uTIMP-2 and the product [uTIMP-2] × [ulGFBP7]/uCr were significantly higher in AKI dogs compared to all other groups. FeNGAL was markedly elevated in AKI dogs (median 54.17%) versus healthy (0.03%) and critically ill dogs (3.05%) Conclusions and Clinical Importance Normalized uTIMP-2, uTIMP-2 × ulGFBP7, and FeNGAL are promising biomarkers for distinguishing AKI from CKD and other illnesses in dogs.

Answer 148

Median HRQoL score was significantly worse in hyperthyroid cats (87.5) than controls

Answer 149

Median interstitial glucose (IG) was significantly lower with canagliflozin (87 mg/dL) compared to insulin alone (212 mg/dL). Glucosuria (fractional excretion of glucose) was also significantly higher with canagliflozin. However, hypoglycemia occurred more frequently with the combination (19% vs. 4%) Conclusions and Clinical Importance Canagliflozin may improve glycemic control in insulin-treated diabetic dogs, but insulin doses should be adjusted to reduce the risk of hypoglycemia.

Answer 150

Low hematocrit and high BUN were associated with non-survival. Hematocrit, but not platelet count or bleeding score, predicted need for transfusion.

Answer 151

In induced ITP, plasma TPO levels markedly increased (515–>6000 pg/mL). However, 56/58 dogs with spontaneous pITP had TPO concentrations within or below the reference range (0–158 pg/mL), suggesting insufficient thrombopoietic response. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Most dogs with pITP have low TPO levels despite thrombocytopenia, supporting ineffective thrombopoiesis. TPO receptor agonists may benefit these dogs, as in human medicine.

Answer 152

There were no significant differences between treatment groups in hospitalization time (HC: 48 h; DEX: 57 h), mortality (DEX: 2/28; HC: 0/11), number of electrolyte rechecks, or normalization times for sodium, potassium, and Na/K ratio

Answer 153

Whole-genome or Sanger sequencing identified 6 distinct heterozygous COL5A1 variants in dogs exhibiting classical Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS) signs including fragile/hyperextensible skin, joint hypermobility, and atrophic scars. Skin biopsies confirmed ultrastructural abnormalities. Age at last follow-up or death ranged from 6.5 to 14 years. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This study characterizes novel COL5A1 variants associated with classical EDS in dogs. Genetic and histologic evaluations improve diagnosis and prognosis for this connective tissue disorder

Answer 154

Grapiprant resulted in significantly lower Pain Severity Score (PSS) and Pain Interference Score (PIS) on Day 3 and Day 10 for PIS.

Answer 155

A cutoff MV/BW of 373 mL/kg had 67% sensitivity and 93% specificity for abnormal breathing effort. Elevated MV/BW was associated with increased mortality (adjusted HR 1.17; P = .03). Conclusions and Clinical Importance MV/BW assessed by BWBP is a noninvasive prognostic marker in cats with respiratory distress.

Answer 156

Cobalamin normalized in 100% of cats in both groups. Of 37 cats with high MMA levels at baseline, MMA normalized in 70–88% depending on disease and treatment group.

Answer 157

In dogs, oxidative stress was higher in early-stage CKD and declined in later stages (Stage 1 median: 4.7 ng/mg vs. Stage 4: 0.37 ng/mg). Similar trends were seen in cats (Stage 1: 0.97 ng/mg vs. Stage 4: 0.2 ng/mg), though not significantly different from controls. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Oxidative stress is present in early CKD and declines with progression. It may represent a therapeutic target in the early stages of renal disease.

Answer 158

peaking around 11:00 AM and reaching a nadir near 11:00 PM, with ~25% fluctuation. A nonlinear relationship between phosphorus and ionized calcium concentrations was observed. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Phosphorus levels in cats exhibit predictable diurnal variation

Answer 159

Among 8 segmental reflexes assessed, the extensor carpi radialis, withdrawal, patellar, and cranial tibial reflexes showed high intraobserver agreement (>95%) and interobserver agreement (>92%).

Answer 160

CP in ECS was commonly associated with other immune-mediated diseases including keratoconjunctivitis sicca (49 cases), proteinuria (47), anal sac disease (36), and atopy (21). Parti-color coat, particularly blue roan, correlated with CP. These findings suggest clinical and pathological similarity to IgG4-related disease in humans. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Chronic pancreatitis in ECS often coexists with immune-mediated diseases, similar to human IgG4-RD.

Answer 161

No significant differences in echocardiographic measurements were found between groups. However, ventricular premature complexes (VPCs) were more common in the high-pulse group (17%) than the low-pulse group (2%) (P = .005).

Answer 162

The echocardiographic pulmonary to left atrial ratio (ePLAR) was significantly higher in dogs with precapillary PH compared to postcapillary PH (0.36 vs. 0.26; P = .005). A cutoff of <0.245 distinguished isolated PH with 86% accuracy (AUC = 0.86).

Answer 163

At hospital admission, 95% of dogs had low tT3, and 16% had low tT4. tT4 normalized early in recovery, while 83% still had low tT3 at 21 days. TSH increased significantly during recovery, but none of the dogs had both low tT4 and high TSH concurrently. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Acute illness disrupts thyroid hormone levels in dogs for up to 21 days post-discharge.

Answer 164

Dogs with intrahepatic portosystemic shunts (IHPSS) exhibited more gastrointestinal signs (81% vs 34%;), anemia (31% vs 6%;), microcytosis (77% vs 29%), and hypochromia (77% vs 49%;) than those with extrahepatic shunts (EHPSS). Conclusions and Clinical Importance IHPSS dogs present more frequently with anemia, microcytosis, and GI signs, indicating distinct hematologic and clinical profiles compared to EHPSS dogs.

Answer 165

Cerebellar infarcts affecting the interposital nucleus can cause transient mydriasis, a previously unreported clinical sign in such cases. Anisocoria resolved in both dogs within 2 weeks.

Answer 166

Both puppies showed severe tremors and widespread white matter spongiosis. Conclusions and Clinical Importance These findings represent a congenital leukodystrophy resembling Canavan disease in humans but unrelated to the ASPA gene. The condition is likely genetic and breed-specific

Answer 167

Most dogs recovered adrenal function within a median of 3 days after stopping IAGC (range 2–133 days). Eleven dogs had normal ACTH response at first testing. Liver enzyme elevations correlated weakly with cortisol. Alternate-day tapering did not alter recovery time. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Most dogs regain HPA axis function rapidly post-IAGC, but some may require prolonged monitoring (>8 weeks).

Answer 168

Surgery (42%) and trauma (33%) were leading causes of sciatic nerve injury (SNI). Wild boar bites accounted for 24% of trauma cases in dogs. Tarsal joint flexion and extension ability correlated with favorable outcomes. A CMAP amplitude >1.45 mV predicted positive outcome in dogs with 100% specificity. Quality of life was perceived as good even with limb amputation.

Answer 169

A gastric polyp in a dog progressed over 14 months to gastric adenocarcinoma with leptomeningeal metastasis. Serial biopsies documented this transformation, with neurological signs preceding death. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Though rare, gastric polyps in dogs can undergo malignant transformation.

Answer 170

Among 824 dogs with follow-up, only 3.5% developed insulin-treated diabetes mellitus (ITDM). Surprisingly, most of those that developed ITDM had initial blood glucose <144 mg/dL. No association was found between initial hyperglycemia severity and time to ITDM development.

Answer 171

D-dimer showed low sensitivity (30.8%) but high specificity (86.4%) for identifying CVAs. TEG had moderate sensitivity (64.3%) and specificity (66.7%). Neither test could distinguish ischemic from hemorrhagic stroke (P = .43 and P = .41).

Answer 172

Zonisamide significantly reduced seizure frequency and seizure days per month across all cats and in cats with idiopathic epilepsy.

Answer 173

Dogs with MMVD and PH had increased platelet activation (P-selectin expression), higher platelet-leukocyte aggregates, and more platelet-neutrophil aggregates after stimulation. TEG results and plasma serotonin were not significantly different. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Dogs with MMVD and PH exhibit increased platelet activity and immune cell interaction

Answer 174

In both age groups, 50% of cats showed mild neurologic changes post-gabapentin, mainly postural reaction deficits and gait changes. Geriatric cats showed significant increases in both anxiety and sedation scores, while only sedation increased in young cats. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Gabapentin can cause transient neurologic changes, especially in geriatric cats.

Answer 175

Clinical signs such as obtundation (OR 4.64), head tilt (OR 6.42), and nystagmus (OR 8.24). Pain was linked to syringomyelia (OR 3.4). MRI signs like periventricular edema and signal voids Conclusions and Clinical Importance Clinical signs and specific MRI findings can aid diagnosis in hydrocephalus but are not definitive indicators of elevated IVP.

Answer 176

Only 1 of 73 dogs was diagnosed with hypoadrenocorticism based on ACTH stimulation, giving a prevalence of 1.3%. Most common diagnoses included vasovagal syncope (10/73) and cardiac arrhythmias. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Hypoadrenocorticism is a rare cause of collapse in dogs.

Answer 177

Sinus pauses >2s were significantly longer in sinus node dysfunction than HP/LSM. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Machine learning and Poincaré density grids can accurately distinguish sinus node dysfunction from HP/LSM.

Answer 178

Median serum NfL concentration was significantly higher in SE (109 pg/mL) vs. IE (17.7 pg/mL).

Answer 179

Common signs included altered mentation (71%), ataxia (44%), seizures (29%), and circling (26%). Forebrain and multifocal localizations were most common. median survival time of 84 days. The majority of deaths (17/18) were MUE-related. Conclusions and Clinical Importance MUE in juvenile dogs is associated with a poor prognosis. Survival is limited even with immunosuppressive therapy.

Answer 180

Amlodipine significantly increased plasma renin (44%), angiotensin I (59%), angiotensin II (56%), angiotensin IV (42%), and angiotensin 1-7 (38%) compared to placebo Conclusions and Clinical Importance Amlodipine activates both classical and alternative RAAS pathways in cats, which could impact long-term cardiovascular management strategies.

Answer 181

Survival to discharge was 82%, and 6-month survival was 63.5%, with 36% of survivors showing neurologic deficits. Risk factors for 6-month mortality included pugs , seizures, paresis, and higher neurodisability scores . Relapse occurred in 51% of 316 dogs during a median follow-up of 11 months.

Answer 182

MRI revealed ventriculomegaly, cortical thinning, and widened sulci. Thyroid masses appeared hyperintense on T1- and T2-weighted imaging. Genetic testing confirmed a thyroid peroxidase mutation. Initiation of thyroxine supplementation led to rapid clinical improvement.

Answer 183

Discospondylitis was 3.4x more common in French bulldogs and 4.3x more common in English bulldogs compared to other breeds. French and English bulldogs presented significantly younger than other breeds (median 1.1 and 1.0 years vs. 7.3 years) Conclusions and Clinical Importance Discospondylitis is frequently associated with congenital vertebral malformations in bulldogs.

Answer 184

Aerophagia (air ingestion) was present in 40% of dogs. It was more likely in dogs with both GI and respiratory signs (58.3%) than those with only respiratory signs (25%). Brachycephalic dogs (45.8% vs 13.8%), those with upper airway obstruction (33.3% vs 4.1%;), gagging, and higher aspiration scores were at increased risk. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Aerophagia is common, especially in brachycephalic dogs and those with airway obstruction. It poses a high aspiration risk and should be evaluated via VFSS in dogs with upper aerodigestive concerns.

Answer 185

In LAD cats, several variables (pause, PIF, PEF, and PEF/EF50) significantly changed between the first and third periods. Healthy cats also showed significant changes in PIF, PEF, and PEF/EF50 between early time periods. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Acclimatization time significantly affects BWBP variables in both healthy and diseased cats.

Answer 186

Epileptic dogs exhibit BBB dysfunction with molecular markers of astrocyte and tight junction disruption. This highlights a potential therapeutic target for managing epilepsy.

Answer 187

The urinary SDC1-to-creatinine ratio (USCR) was significantly higher post-anesthesia (P < .05). No significant effect of anesthetic type was found. Conclusions and Clinical Importance IV fluid volume correlates with urinary SDC1 levels, potentially impacting endothelial integrity during anesthesia.

Answer 188

In-hospital mortality was 21.5%. Risk factors for mortality included longer hospitalization, longer symptom duration, and increased CRP after 1–3 days of treatment. Pugs had higher mortality risk (OR 4.93), commonly from aspiration pneumonia.

Answer 189

Progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) were similar between CHOP-19 and CHOP-25 protocols. No significant difference was found.

Answer 190

Initial classification: food-responsive enteropathy (FRE) 45%, immunomodulator-responsive enteropathy (IRE) 50%, nonresponsive enteropathy (NRE) 5%, antibiotic-responsive enteropathy (ARE) 0%. After one year, classification shifted: FRE 73%, IRE 23%, NRE 3%. 40% of dogs changed groups, mostly IRE → FRE (79%). Conclusions and Clinical Importance CIE classification should be re-evaluated long-term.

Answer 191

30 dogs (15 with CE, 15 matched healthy controls) Results All dogs >10 kg received ALICAM capsules and had complete, complication-free GI recordings. No significant differences in mucosal abnormalities (erythema, erosions, lacteal dilation) were found between CE and healthy dogs. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Video capsule endoscopy is safe and feasible for GI assessment in dogs >10 kg. Abnormalities were equally frequent in CE and healthy dogs, limiting its diagnostic differentiation.

Answer 192

An 8-year-old Leonberger on immunosuppressives presented with acute respiratory distress. Initial treatment (oxygen, clopidogrel, LMWH) improved symptoms marginally. Persistent pulmonary hypertension signs prompted addition of beraprost and later monteplase. Dog remained stable 400 days post-treatment. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This case demonstrates successful long-term management of thrombotic PH using antithrombotic and vasodilator therapy. Early detection and multimodal treatment are crucial for recovery.

Answer 193

48 dogs with subclinical MMVD Results Fifty-eight veterinary students performed 146 focused cardiac ultrasonography (FCU) exams to assess left atrial-to-aortic (LA:Ao) and left ventricular (LVIDdN) ratios. Agreement with cardiologist echocardiograms was moderate (kappa = 0.54; P < .001), and accuracy was significantly better in dogs with heart dimensions below clinical cutoffs (97% vs. 54%; P < .001). Agreement improved in cases with more extreme heart sizes, and students’ confidence improved over time. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Veterinary students can reasonably classify subclinical MMVD stages using FCU, especially with more severe cardiac changes. FCU is a useful point-of-care method for training and staging

Answer 194

(73%) survived to discharge. Of these, 81% lived ≥30 days, and 75% survived ≥6 months. Non-survivors had more organ system involvement and significantly higher median bilirubin (21.0 vs. 1.9 mg/dL). BUN and creatinine did not significantly differ between survivors and non-survivors.

Answer 195

A 14-year-old Miniature Pinscher presented with tongue curling, dysphagia, and hypersalivation. MRI identified multiloculated cysts in the occipito-atlanto-axial joint compressing the hypoglossal canal. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Ganglion cysts at the occipito-atlanto-axial joint can compress cranial nerves and should be included in differential diagnoses for hypoglossal neuropathy.

Answer 196

Cats with cardiogenic arterial thromboembolism (ATE) had significantly lower viscoelastic clotting parameters compared to controls. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Cats with ATE have hypocoagulable viscoelastic profiles compared to healthy cats. VCM may help assess hemostatic status in cats with ATE.

Answer 197

Conclusions and Clinical Importance There was no significant outcome difference between corticosteroid monotherapy and combined cytarabine CRI therapy in MUO dogs at any time point up to 100 days.

Answer 198

Conclusions and Clinical Importance Complement system dysregulation is associated with idiopathic epilepsy. Serum C3 and C4 may serve as biomarkers for epilepsy severity in dogs.

Answer 199

Presentations included generalized myopathy (6), multifocal intracranial disease (7), myelopathy (4), polyneuropathy (2), and single cases of focal myopathy and cerebellar disease. MRI findings included multifocal intracranial changes (7/13), muscle involvement (5/13), and less commonly cerebellar abnormalities. Creatine kinase was elevated (median 3369 U/L). Eight dogs fully recovered, six had residual deficits, and seven had minimal response. Thirteen dogs (62%) survived ≥6 months; relapse occurred in four. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Adult-onset neosporosis has diverse clinical manifestations. Treatment response varies and relapses are possible even in dogs with initial complete recovery.

Answer 200

Many dogs, even without deep pain perception, recover ambulation with conservative treatment. Improvement is not dependent on resolution of spinal compression.

Answer 201

In this retrospective study, median age at diagnosis was 12 years. Diarrhea (65%), vomiting (39%), weight loss (39%), and inappetence (26%) were common; 13% were asymptomatic. Ultrasonography revealed colonic thickening in 79%. Colonoscopy showed mucosal ulceration in 39%, and histopathology commonly showed lymphoplasmacytic colitis. Many also had concurrent small intestinal lymphoplasmacytic enteritis or lymphoma.

Answer 202

1 German Shepherd dog Results An 8-year-old spayed female German Shepherd presented with thoracic limb monoparesis. MRI showed a contrast-enhancing cervical spinal cord mass. Rapid neurologic decline led to euthanasia. Necropsy revealed an intraparenchymal hemangiosarcoma arising from a hemangioma. No other metastatic disease was found. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This is a novel case of a primary cervical spinal cord hemangiosarcoma likely arising from benign vascular tissue. It expands the known spectrum of vasoproliferative CNS disorders in dogs.

Answer 203

40 white Devon Rex cats Results Brainstem auditory evoked responses identified sensorineural deafness in 10% of cats. Unilateral and bilateral deafness occurred equally (2 cats each). No significant association was found between deafness and sex or blue irises. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Congenital sensorineural deafness occurs in white Devon Rex cats, but less frequently than in other purebred populations. Iris color was not predictive of deafness.

Answer 204

180 English Cocker Spaniels (ECS) Results 29% of ECS had low blood taurine concentrations (B-TauC), and 25% of these showed signs of congestive heart failure (CHF). Retinal abnormalities were present in 9%. Low dietary methionine, red meat as the primary protein source, and increasing age were significantly associated with lower B-TauC (P < .001). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Taurine deficiency may contribute to CHF in ECS. Diet composition, particularly methionine content and protein source, influences taurine status and may serve as modifiable risk factors.

Answer 205

1 cat Results An 18-year-old male neutered domestic shorthair cat with a SUB device for ureterolithiasis developed hematuria, progressing to a bladder mass at the cystostomy tube site after 13 months. Cystectomy and left-sided SUB placement were performed, and histopathology confirmed urothelial carcinoma (UC). No prior veterinary reports have linked UC to indwelling SUB devices. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This is the first veterinary report of UC developing at the site of a long-term SUB cystostomy tube. Chronic device placement may be a risk factor for neoplastic transformation.

Answer 206

50 cats with confirmed myeloma-related disorders (MRDs) Results Bone marrow plasmacytosis, splenic, and hepatic involvement were observed in 63%, 86%, and 71% of cats, respectively. Common therapies included melphalan, cyclophosphamide, and chlorambucil combined with prednisolone, yielding response rates of 87%, 90%, and 100%, respectively. Median survival time was 122 days. Anemia (HR 3.1) and thrombocytopenia (HR 2.7) were linked to shorter survival. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Feline MRDs carry a guarded prognosis. Anemia and thrombocytopenia at diagnosis predict poorer outcomes.

Answer 207

10 healthy dogs (FMT recipients), 2 healthy donors Results Dogs received rectal FMT and were monitored for 28 days. No significant changes in CBC, serum chemistry, CRP, cytokines (IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α), leukocyte populations, or dysbiosis index were noted. Mild, self-resolving adverse events (vomiting, diarrhea, lethargy, inappetence) occurred. Conclusions and Clinical Importance FMT is safe in healthy dogs, with minimal adverse effects and no significant impact on immune or microbiota profiles over 28 days.

Answer 208

2 dogs Results Two dogs presented with vestibular ataxia and right medial strabismus. Neurologic signs suggested thalamic involvement, and MRI confirmed left paramedian thalamic lacunar infarcts. The medial strabismus was attributed to disruption of contralateral inhibitory pathways to the oculomotor nucleus, leading to medial rectus hypertonicity. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Medial strabismus may be a localizing neurologic sign of contralateral thalamic infarction in dogs, expanding the known clinical spectrum of thalamic stroke.

Answer 209

4 dogs (littermates) Results Two dogs in an endemic T. cruzi area received prophylactic benznidazole twice weekly and remained disease-free for over 2 years. The other two dogs did not receive prophylaxis; one died from acute pancarditis and the other developed arrhythmias and high cardiac troponin I but improved with treatment. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Modified benznidazole regimens may prevent or mitigate T. cruzi infection. Early or prophylactic treatment appears promising but needs further validation.

Answer 210

Reliability cohort: 34 healthy dogs; Scaling cohort: 99 with heart disease, 25 healthy Results Four echocardiographic methods were assessed for accuracy in measuring mitral regurgitant fraction (RF): 4-chamber bullet, mitral inflow, cube formula, and Simpson's method. CCVs for RF ranged from 28% to 88%. The 4-chamber bullet method had the best intraobserver repeatability. Interobserver agreement was poor (ICC 0.210–0.413). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Volumetric methods for RF calculation in dogs show high variability and limited reliability. Clinicians should be cautious when interpreting RF changes and consider method- and operator-specific variability.

Answer 211

6 purpose-bred mixed-breed dogs Results Dogs received oral apixaban or rivaroxaban (0.5 mg/kg q12h) for 7 days, with a 14-day washout. Plasma drug concentrations, anti-Xa activity, and thrombin generation were measured. Both drugs showed similar inhibition of thrombin generation, and plasma concentrations correlated with anticoagulant activity. No evidence of rebound hypercoagulability was observed after drug cessation. TAT complex levels decreased post-apixaban and remained stable after rivaroxaban. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Apixaban and rivaroxaban had comparable anticoagulant effects. No rebound effect was detected after discontinuation, suggesting tapering may not be necessary in dogs

Answer 212

6 female dogs (9 kidneys affected) Results Dogs were treated with diet, antibiotics, and ureteral stenting (5/6) for suspected struvite nephro/ureterolithiasis. All had Staphylococcus pseudintermedius infections. Complete ureterolith dissolution occurred by a median of 3.9 months; nephroliths by 5.3 months. Pyonephrosis was present in 4/5 stented dogs. Follow-up ranged from 177 to 2492 days. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Medical dissolution with decompression is a viable, minimally invasive option for upper urinary tract struvite stones. It may prevent the need for surgery in select patients.

Answer 213

102 cats with intestinal lymphoma Results Full-thickness intestinal and mesenteric lymph node biopsies were analyzed. Mesenteric lymph nodes showed neoplastic infiltration in 43.1% of cases. Most small cell T-cell lymphomas (70.8%) did not involve lymph nodes. Clonality testing misclassified 36.7% of reactive nodes, raising concern over sole reliance on node analysis for diagnosis. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Mesenteric lymph node biopsy alone may be insufficient for diagnosing feline intestinal lymphoma, especially small cell variants. Full-thickness biopsies remain critical for accurate diagnosis and staging

Answer 214

2 cats Results One cat developed aldosterone resistance (AR) secondary to chronic kidney disease post-acute kidney injury and responded to oral furosemide. The second developed transient AR due to a urinary tract infection linked to catheterization and improved with antibiotic treatment. Both cases presented with hyperkalemia and type IV renal tubular acidosis (RTA). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Feline pseudohypoaldosteronism can occur due to acquired renal resistance and hyperkalemic type IV RTA. These cases mirror the human form and respond to targeted therapy depending on the underlying cause.

Answer 215

1 dog Results An 11-year-old Labrador retriever with fever, lethargy, and cough was diagnosed with Francisella philomiragiabacteremia. The dog was treated with 6 weeks of oral enrofloxacin, with clinical normalization and negative follow-up blood cultures at 2 and 6 weeks. The dog remained healthy at 7 months post-treatment. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This is the first report of successful treatment of F. philomiragia bacteremia in a dog. Long-term antibiotic therapy may be effective in systemic infections with this rare pathogen.

Answer 216

118 dogs Results SDMA was measured using LC-MS/MS and ELISA. The LC-MS/MS assay had high linearity (r = 0.99) and precision. Median SDMA was 9.4 μg/dL (LC-MS/MS) vs. 12.0 μg/dL (ELISA), with a mean difference of 2.2 μg/dL (P < .05). New reference intervals for older dogs were proposed: 4.4–15.0 μg/dL (LC-MS/MS) and 6.4–17.4 μg/dL (ELISA). Conclusions and Clinical Importance ELISA overestimates SDMA compared to LC-MS/MS. Device-specific reference intervals are necessary, especially in older dogs where higher normal values are observed.

Answer 217

756 dogs Results A neural network was trained to detect heart murmurs from electronic stethoscope recordings. Sensitivity for murmur detection was 87.9%, specificity 81.7%. Exact murmur grade agreement with cardiologists was 57%. The algorithm effectively differentiated between preclinical MMVD stages B1 and B2 (AUC = 0.861). Conclusions and Clinical Importance This machine-learning model provides accurate murmur detection and MMVD staging, offering a potential screening tool in primary veterinary care settings.

Answer 218

59 dogs with urothelial carcinoma (UC) Results Median overall survival time was 339 days. Of the 85% of dogs euthanized due to UC, 62% were due to local progression—most commonly perceived urinary obstruction (77%). Metastatic disease was the cause in 38%. No variables were predictive of obstruction, and the overall metastasis rate was 56%. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Local tumor effects, particularly urinary obstruction, are the main reason for euthanasia in dogs with UC. Improved local control may enhance quality of life and extend survival.

Answer 219

42 dogs with untreated B-cell lymphoma Results Dogs treated with the 1E4-clgGB anti-CD20 antibody and doxorubicin showed rapid and sustained B-cell depletion (median 4% of baseline by Day 7 and 1% by Day 21; P < .01). T-cell counts remained stable. B-cell depletion persisted for over 4 months in many dogs. Only one hypersensitivity reaction was noted. Conclusions and Clinical Importance The 1E4-clgGB anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody is safe and effective for depleting B-cells in dogs with lymphoma, supporting its potential in clinical protocols.

Answer 220

51 dogs with signs of chronic GI disease Results Postprandial measurements for cobalamin, folate, and cTLI at 2 and 4 hours were statistically equivalent to fasting levels, but feeding altered clinical interpretation in 27% (cobalamin), 35% (folate), 20% (cTLI), and 12% (cPLI). Equivalence for cPLI could not be confirmed due to low detection values. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Despite statistical equivalence, postprandial testing altered clinical interpretations in many dogs. Fasting remains the preferred protocol for GI biomarker testing.

Answer 221

8 donor dogs Results Packed red blood cells (pRBCs) were stored with or without leukoreduction (LR). Non-leukoreduced pRBCs had higher free fatty acids, pyruvate, lactate, and amino acids, indicating increased metabolic stress. In contrast, LR-pRBCs preserved ATP and antioxidant metabolites. LR reduced the biochemical changes associated with storage lesions. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Leukoreduction minimizes metabolic deterioration in stored canine pRBCs, preserving energy and reducing oxidative stress. This supports LR as a beneficial step in blood banking.

Answer 222

2 dogs (Yorkshire Terrier and Lagotto Romagnolo) Results Both dogs exhibited progressive cerebellar signs from a young age. MRI revealed marked cerebellar hypoplasia. Histopathology showed near-complete loss of cerebellar granular neurons, confirming granuloprival cerebellar cortical degeneration (CCD). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Granuloprival CCD is a rare but notable cause of postnatal cerebellar ataxia in these breeds and should be considered in differential diagnosis for progressive ataxia in young dogs.

Answer 223

16 dogs with suspected acute pancreatitis Results Dogs were monitored at 0, 2, 7, and 28 days using cPLI, CRP, clinical scores, and ultrasound. In dogs with high initial cPLI (>400), cPLI and clinical severity improved rapidly, but sonographic changes lagged behind. In dogs with low cPLI (<400), findings were consistent with chronic or resolving pancreatitis. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Ultrasound changes may persist even after biochemical and clinical resolution, possibly reflecting healing rather than ongoing disease. Serial monitoring improves interpretation of pancreatitis progression.

Answer 224

31 client-owned cats (16 hyperthyroid, 15 euthyroid) Results Hyperthyroid cats had significantly increased clot amplitude and firmness as measured by VCM-Vet (A10, A20, MCF; all P ≤ .03) and ROTEM (INTEM and FIBTEM A10, A20, MCF; all P ≤ .01). Shorter clotting times (CT) and higher alpha angles were also observed in hyperthyroid cats. Platelet function was not significantly different using whole-blood platelet impedance aggregometry. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Hyperthyroid cats show viscoelastic evidence of a hypercoagulable state, including enhanced clot formation and firmness, suggesting a potential thrombotic risk.

Answer 225

259 client-owned cats (201 followed longitudinally) Results At baseline, 21% of cats thought to be healthy were diagnosed with conditions such as stage 2 CKD (7.7%) or hyperthyroidism (4.6%). Over 2 years, 28% of mature adults and 54% of senior cats developed new diseases—most frequently CKD (13.4%), hyperthyroidism (8.5%), chronic enteropathy/pancreatitis (7.5%), and neoplasia (7%). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Subclinical disease is common even in mature adult cats. Regular screenings are important for early detection and management, not just in senior cats.

Answer 226

36 dogs with proteinuric CKD (pCKD), 20 healthy controls Results Compared to controls, pCKD dogs had significantly higher Ang I, Ang III, Ang 1-5, Ang 1-7, and urinary aldosterone-to-creatinine ratios. After 30 days, enalapril reduced Ang II, while telmisartan increased Ang II (P < .001). Ang 1-7 increased by 753% with telmisartan versus 149% with enalapril (P < .001). Aldosterone decreased significantly in both groups. Conclusions and Clinical Importance RAAS activity is elevated in dogs with pCKD. Telmisartan has a more pronounced effect on increasing potentially protective Ang 1-7 than enalapril, supporting its role in renoprotection

Answer 227

1 dog Results An 11-year-old female spayed German Wirehaired Pointer presented with pericardial effusion and signs of systemic illness. Echocardiography revealed no structural cause. Fluid cytology identified neutrophils with morulae, and PCR confirmed Anaplasma phagocytophilum. The dog was initially ELISA-negative but seroconverted 7 days later. After doxycycline treatment, no recurrence of effusion was seen at 1-month follow-up. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This is the first report of A. phagocytophilum identified in pericardial fluid. The case supports a potential causative role in pericardial effusion and highlights the value of PCR testing when serology is negative.

Answer 228

149 dogs (151 tumors) Results In this retrospective survey, 75% of dogs achieved complete response after a single tigilanol tiglate dose. At 1-year follow-up, 64% of available cases remained disease-free. Wound formation occurred in nearly all cases (median area 4.71 cm²), healing within a median of 30 days. Tumor size correlated moderately with wound size. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Tigilanol tiglate is effective for localized mast cell tumors. It has a predictable healing course, making patient selection and owner communication key to success

Answer 229

1 domestic shorthair cat Results A 9-year-old male cat with chronic muscle swelling, pseudomyotonic discharges, and elevated muscle enzymes was diagnosed with feline X-linked muscular dystrophy (FXMD). Whole-genome sequencing revealed a novel nonsense mutation in the dystrophin gene (c.8333G>A; p.Trp2778Ter). Despite the mutation, the cat showed a relatively mild phenotype and long survival. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This is the first report of a specific dystrophin nonsense mutation associated with mild FXMD in a cat. The findings provide insights into genotype-phenotype variability in feline muscular dystrophy.

Answer 230

15 dogs with GBM and 8 healthy controls Results RNA sequencing of gallbladder epithelial cells revealed 367 differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Two key genes, ANO1 and HTR4, which are involved in chloride channel function and mucin morphology, were significantly downregulated in GBM dogs. These findings were validated using RT-qPCR. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Gallbladder mucoceles may involve dysfunction of chloride channels in epithelial cells rather than mucin overproduction. ANO1 and HTR4 represent potential targets for further research and therapeutic intervention.

Answer 231

8 male dogs Results All dogs had saccular urethral diverticula, most located in the prostatic urethra. Artificial urethral sphincters (AUS) were placed, resulting in improved continence in all dogs (median UCS improved from 1/5 to 4/5). Most cases were suspected to be congenital. Conclusions and Clinical Importance AUS placement is a viable treatment for male dogs with urethral diverticulum and urinary incontinence unresponsive to medical therapy. All cases showed improvement in continence post-surgery

Answer 232

127 diabetic cats (116 for efficacy analysis) Results Velagliflozin achieved treatment success in 54% of cats vs. 42% with Caninsulin by Day 45. It improved quality of life and glycemic control with fewer hypoglycemia events (13% vs. 53%). Diabetic ketoacidosis occurred in 4 velagliflozin-treated cats vs. none with Caninsulin. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Velagliflozin is a safe and effective once-daily oral alternative to insulin for managing feline diabetes, with a lower risk of hypoglycemia and good glycemic control.

Answer 233

63 dogs (28 brachycephalic, 35 normocephalic) Results Brachycephaly was significantly associated with a higher obstructive respiratory event index (OREI) (ratio of geometric means 5.6; 95% CI, 3.2–9.9; P < .001). Excess weight (BCS > 5/9) was also a risk factor (ratio 3.5; 95% CI, 1.8–6.7; P < .001). Among brachycephalic dogs, severity of BOAS was a significant risk factor (P = .03). Age was not significantly associated with OREI. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Brachycephaly, BOAS severity, and obesity are key risk factors for sleep-disordered breathing in dogs. These findings further support the health and welfare implications of brachycephaly.

Answer 234

51 dogs with mast cell tumors Results Dogs treated with famotidine (H2RA) had a significant increase in neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) post-treatment (median increased from 3.429 to 5.631; P < .01). No significant change in NLR was seen in dogs treated with omeprazole (PPI) or acid-suppressant-naïve dogs. Chemotherapy and steroid use did not differ between groups. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Famotidine, unlike omeprazole, appears to influence leukocyte ratios in dogs, suggesting potential immunomodulatory effects that warrant consideration in clinical contexts

Answer 235

73 dogs with MUE Results Dogs were categorized based on MRI findings: 54 had abnormal MRI findings, 19 had normal MRIs. Death due to MUE occurred in 33% of abnormal MRI cases vs. only 5% of normal MRI cases (P = .016). Median survival exceeded 107 months in both groups, but dogs with normal MRI had significantly better survival (P = .019). Abnormal MRI was independently associated with increased risk of death (HR 7.71; 95% CI, 1.03–58.00; P = .047). Conclusions and Clinical Importance MRI findings are prognostically relevant in dogs with MUE. Absence of MRI lesions correlates with significantly reduced disease-related mortality.

Answer 236

9 healthy dogs (>20 kg) Results Dogs were given esomeprazole at 0.5 or 1 mg/kg PO q24h for up to 5 days. Both doses significantly increased the mean percentage time (MPT) that gastric pH remained ≥3 and ≥4 on days 1 and 2 (P = .0009 and P = .0005), with no difference between dosages. However, 33% of dogs required q12h dosing to meet human-target intragastric pH thresholds. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Once-daily dosing of esomeprazole raised intragastric pH effectively in most dogs, but some may require twice-daily dosing to achieve optimal acid suppression.

Answer 237

7 healthy colony cats Results Cats received prednisolone (median 1.28 mg/kg PO) for 7 days. Lipase activity and PLI were measured at baseline and five time points. No significant changes in lipase activity or PLI concentrations were observed over time. One cat had persistently elevated values, but no clinical abnormalities developed in any cat. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Anti-inflammatory doses of prednisolone do not significantly alter serum lipase activity or PLI in healthy cats, supporting its use in studies involving pancreatic biomarkers.

Answer 238

187 dogs (from 6 prior studies) Results Outcomes after rescue chemotherapy (lomustine, LAP, or rabacfosadine) were compared in dogs who had early vs. later progression post-CHOP. Dogs with early progression had significantly lower response rates, shorter progression-free intervals (PFI), and shorter survival times. Immunophenotype (B- vs T-cell) did not affect LAP response but was predictive of response to rabacfosadine. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Early progression during or shortly after CHOP chemotherapy portends poor outcomes with rescue protocols. Immunophenotype may guide treatment choices, particularly with rabacfosadine.

Answer 239

52 dogs with atrial fibrillation Results Dogs were monitored across multiple visits following anti-arrhythmic drug (AAD) therapy. Rate control (RC) was defined as a mean heart rate (HR) ≤125 bpm on Holter. At each visit, a portion of dogs achieved RC (e.g., 11/52 at Visit 2, 14/52 at Visit 3), and 25 remained non-RC at the end. RC dogs had smaller cardiac dimensions and lower NT-proBNP at the end of the study. No variables at earlier visits predicted success at subsequent visits. Survival did not differ significantly between dogs that achieved RC early vs. later. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Dogs with atrial fibrillation that achieve RC show signs of cardiac reverse remodeling and improved biomarkers. Continued pursuit of RC remains important, even if early success is not achieved.

Answer 240

3281 dogs and 726 cats Results Immature platelet fraction (IPF) was measured using the Sysmex XN-1000V analyzer. IPF was significantly different among pseudothrombocytopenia (PSE), central (CEN), and peripheral (PER) thrombocytopenia. In dogs, IPF <6.9% indicated CEN; in cats, <13.6% suggested CEN. Reference intervals were 0.5–8% for dogs and 1–40.3% for cats. Conclusions and Clinical Importance IPF is a valuable, noninvasive tool for differentiating CEN and PER causes of thrombocytopenia in dogs and cats. Blood smear evaluation remains essential to rule out platelet clumping.

Answer 241

198 dogs; 95 with nasopharyngeal masses Results Dorsomedian nasopharyngeal masses were observed in 47.9% (95/198) of dogs undergoing retrograde nasopharyngoscopy. The majority of these masses were small (<10% of nasopharyngeal height in 64.2% of cases). Brachycephalic conformation was the only factor significantly associated with mass presence on multivariable analysis (OR = 2.3; P = .03). Conclusions and Clinical Importance These benign-appearing nasopharyngeal masses are common in dogs, especially brachycephalic breeds. They share similar characteristics across breeds and are typically small, suggesting a likely non-pathologic process.

Answer 242

224 dogs ≤18 months old Results The five most common diagnoses were vertebral malformation (18.8%), spinal arachnoid diverticulum (12.5%), traumatic vertebral fracture (9.8%), atlantoaxial instability (8%), and osseous-associated cervical spondylomyelopathy (7.6%). IVDE accounted for only 4.5% of cases. Breed, age, and clinical signs were predictive of diagnosis. Conclusions and Clinical Importance In juvenile dogs, the differential diagnosis for myelopathy differs from adults. Conditions like vertebral malformations and spinal diverticula are more prevalent than IVDE, especially in screw-tailed and brachycephalic breeds.

Answer 243

85 bitches with mammary tumors (21 benign, 64 malignant), 39 healthy controls Results No significant differences in 25-hydroxyvitamin D were found between tumor-bearing and healthy dogs. However, parathyroid hormone (PTH) was significantly higher in both benign and malignant groups compared to controls (P < .01). PTH levels were independently associated with the presence of tumors and age. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Vitamin D levels are not decreased in dogs with mammary tumors. These findings do not support vitamin D supplementation as a preventive strategy.

Answer 244

10 domestic cats Results In a randomized crossover study, cats received clopidogrel alone or clopidogrel with omeprazole. Platelet function was measured using three methods, and clopidogrel active metabolite (CAM) levels were evaluated. Plasma CAM levels were significantly lower on Day 10 in the combo group (P < .02), but there was no significant difference in platelet function between groups. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Although omeprazole altered clopidogrel metabolism, it did not affect platelet inhibition in healthy cats. Short-term coadministration appears clinically safe in this context.

Answer 245

65 dogs (24 OM, 10 OSCC, 11 benign oral tumors, 20 healthy) Results Salivary metabolomic profiling using LC-MS identified 154 and 66 significantly altered metabolites in OM and OSCC vs. benign tumors (Padj < .05). Biomarkers included decreased sarcosine and seryl-arginine in OSCC and increased tryptophyl-threonine in OM. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Distinct metabolomic profiles in saliva can differentiate OM and OSCC from benign tumors. Noninvasive biomarker-based diagnosis is a promising avenue in veterinary oncology.

Answer 246

1 Miniature Schnauzer Results An 8-year-old neutered male dog was diagnosed with DM and treated with insulin. Blood glucose normalized, and insulin was discontinued over a year. The dog remained euglycemic off insulin for another year before clinical signs returned, and insulin was restarted for life. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This rare case demonstrates the possibility of spontaneous diabetic remission in dogs without an obvious reversible trigger. Such cases challenge assumptions about canine DM prognosis and pathophysiology.

Answer 247

10 cats (molnupiravir group) + 10 historical controls (GS-441524 group) Results In this prospective open-label trial, 10 cats with effusive FIP received oral molnupiravir (10–15 mg/kg q12h) for 84 days. Eight cats survived to 16 weeks and were in clinical remission; 2 cats died within 24 hours of starting treatment. No adverse events requiring discontinuation occurred. Survival was non-inferior to GS-441524-treated historical controls (5/9 survived), with a 25% survival difference (90% CI: −9.3% to 59.3%). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Molnupiravir is a promising and effective antiviral treatment for effusive FIP in cats. It provides a viable oral alternative to GS-441524 with similar clinical and clinicopathologic responses.

Answer 248

32 client-owned dogs Results Using phase-contrast MRI, CSF peak flow velocity was measured at the mesencephalic aqueduct, foramen magnum (FM), and second cervical vertebra (C2). Larger dogs (>20 kg) had significantly higher CSF velocities at multiple sites compared to small dogs (<10 kg). Younger dogs (<2 years) and male dogs also had higher velocities at specific locations. Conclusions and Clinical Importance CSF peak flow velocity in dogs is influenced by body weight, age, and sex. These variables

Answer 249

1 dog Results A 2.5-year-old spayed female mixed breed dog was treated with hydroxyurea (37 mg/kg) for presumed polycythemia vera. Within 2 hours, the dog developed respiratory distress, cyanosis, and was diagnosed with methemoglobinemia. Clinical signs resolved within 24 hours but recurred after a second dose (17 mg/kg) administered 20 days later. Although the dog remained mildly cyanotic and otherwise stable, it was euthanized due to persistent neurologic signs and lack of improvement. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This case highlights that methemoglobinemia can occur in dogs even at therapeutic doses of hydroxyurea. It underscores the need for caution and monitoring when using hydroxyurea in veterinary patients.

Answer 250

1 affected cat, 2 healthy controls, 20 geriatric cats, 194 unrelated cats for genetic screening Results A cat presented with Glanzmann's thrombasthenia and macrothrombocytopenia was found to carry a novel autosomal recessive frameshift mutation in the ITGA2B gene (c.1986_1987insCC). The variant led to a complete loss of ITGA2B transcript and protein expression, confirmed by RT-PCR and flow cytometry. It was absent in 194 unrelated cats from 44 breeds. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This study confirmed a novel ITGA2B mutation as the cause of Glanzmann's thrombasthenia in a cat and supports the utility of genetic testing and precision medicine in feline cardiovascular disorders.

Answer 251

Dogs and cats managed from Jan 2021–Jun 2021 and Sep 2021–Jun 2022 Results Fluoroquinolones were the most frequently prescribed WHO-CIA (32.9% in dogs, 42.7% in cats). No carbapenems or polymyxins were used. Institutional guidelines were followed in 57.8% of cases. Nonadherence was due primarily to failure to perform culture and susceptibility (C/S) testing (46%) or inappropriate use of higher-tier drugs (43%). Post-guideline implementation, C/S testing increased significantly (59.7% vs. 46.8%, P = 0.0006), though overall adherence and antimicrobial resistance patterns remained unchanged. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Hospital AMS guidelines increased C/S testing but did not significantly improve adherence or affect resistance rates, underscoring the need for ongoing stewardship efforts.

Answer 252

Systematic review and meta-analysis of 15 studies Results Pooled prevalence estimates showed that early cough occurred in 99% of dogs (95% CI: 95–100%), late cough in 75% (95% CI: 63–85%), and clinically relevant cough in 52% (95% CI: 42–61%). Tracheobronchial infections (24%), granuloma formation (20%), stent fractures (12%), relapsing collapse (10%), and stent migration (5%) were also reported. High heterogeneity was observed among studies for several complications. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Tracheal stenting is frequently associated with coughing and carries a moderate risk of infection and granuloma formation. It should be considered a second-line treatment, and clients must be counseled regarding the need for ongoing care and potential complications.

Answer 253

7573 blood units from 4121 cats Results Of 4034 Portuguese and 70 Spanish donor cats, 214 tested positive for Hemoplasma spp. by qPCR, for an overall prevalence of 5.2% (95% CI: 4.5–5.9%). Male cats (OR = 1.9), FeLV-positive cats (OR = 2.8), and winter donations (OR = 2.5) were significantly associated with higher positivity. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Hemoplasma screening is critical for feline blood donor programs, especially in high-risk groups. Rigorous testing helps prevent transfusion-associated transmission of hemoplasmas.

Answer 254

44 dogs with SRMA Results Dogs were randomized to receive either a 6-week or a 6-month prednisolone protocol. All dogs responded clinically. Relapse occurred in 30% of the 6-month group (6/20) and 38% of the 6-week group (9/24). No statistically significant difference was found in relapse risk (OR = 1.40, 95% CI: 0.40–4.96; P = 0.60) or total relapse events (IRR = 1.46, 95% CI: 0.61–3.48; P = 0.40). Conclusions and Clinical Importance A 6-week prednisolone protocol may be as effective as the traditional 6-month course for SRMA, potentially reducing the adverse effects associated with prolonged corticosteroid use.

Answer 255

1 German Shepherd dog Results A 3-year-old dog presented with mentation changes, neck pain, and ataxia. MRI revealed multifocal intra-axial forebrain lesions. CSF analysis showed neutrophilic inflammation; infectious testing was initially negative. Corticosteroids provided transient improvement, but signs worsened by Day 12. Repeat MRI showed expanding target-like lesions and temporal muscle nodules. Cytology confirmed neutrophilic inflammation with fungal structures. Postmortem revealed systemic Candida albicans infection in brain, kidney, and heart. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This case highlights neurocandidiasis as a rare but important differential in CNS disease, especially when clinical signs worsen under immunosuppressive therapy.

Answer 256

42 client-owned dogs Results Romiplostim, a thrombopoietin analog, was administered to dogs with thrombocytopenia from various causes. Platelet recovery (>50,000/μL) occurred in a median of 4 days and normalization in 7 days. Response rates varied by etiology: 90% in primary ITP, 50% in chemotherapy-induced thrombocytopenia, 43% in pancytopenia of unknown origin, 33% in DIC, and 0% in radiation-induced cases. Survival-to-discharge was highest for primary ITP (85%) and lowest for pancytopenia of unknown cause (28.6%). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Romiplostim is a promising and well-tolerated treatment for primary ITP and may be beneficial in other thrombocytopenic conditions. Further studies are needed to refine dosing and evaluate efficacy in secondary causes

Answer 257

69 dogs (127 serum levetiracetam trough levels) Results Oral dosage significantly correlated with serum levetiracetam levels, especially in monotherapy cases (R² = 0.59, P < .001). Phenobarbital co-administration reduced serum levetiracetam in a dose-dependent manner (R² = 0.30, P = .003). No other signalment factors were significant. To achieve therapeutic serum levels (~20 µg/mL), estimated daily doses of 99–216 mg/kg of levetiracetam are required, particularly when combined with phenobarbital. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Levetiracetam dosing should be increased when used with phenobarbital. The data help refine individualized dosing, although a clear therapeutic range could not be established in this study.

Answer 258

56 client-owned dogs Results In this prospective, multicenter, open-label study, dogs newly diagnosed with idiopathic epilepsy were treated with zonisamide (ZNS) monotherapy for at least 12 weeks. Of the 53 dogs included in efficacy analysis, 76% had ≥50% seizure reduction and 55% achieved complete seizure freedom. Median effective dose was 4.8 mg/kg PO q12h. Adverse effects were mild and included transient decreased appetite, hindlimb weakness, vomiting, and GI upset in 13% of dogs. No significant lab abnormalities were detected. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Zonisamide monotherapy is effective and well-tolerated in newly diagnosed dogs with idiopathic epilepsy, supporting its use as a first-line antiseizure treatment.

Answer 259

216 cats with hyperbilirubinemia Results Cats were classified by severity of hyperbilirubinemia (mild to very severe) and assessed for biliary obstruction (BO). BO was confirmed in 17 cats (7.9%), all of which were referred for emergency surgery. TBIL levels were significantly higher in BO cases (median 9.69 mg/dL) than in non-BO cases (1.51 mg/dL; P < .01). A TBIL cut-off of 23.86 mg/dL yielded 94.1% sensitivity and 82.4% specificity for predicting BO. Age was also a significant predictor (OR 1.20; P = .04). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Hyperbilirubinemia severity and age are useful predictors of biliary obstruction in cats. A TBIL cut-off of 23.86 mg/dL should raise strong clinical suspicion for BO requiring urgent intervention.

Answer 260

These new right heart ratios offer a simple, reproducible method for assessing right heart size in dogs. They may be used during serial evaluations without requiring weight-based adjustments.

Answer 261

.Dachshunds were the most common breed. The C6-C7 intervertebral space was the most frequently affected (32%), but a significant portion (42%) of cases involved discs between C2-C3 and C4-C5. Disc herniation was more often lateralized and associated with compression at the intervertebral foramen (P = .012). Conclusions and Clinical Importance NRS is most commonly caused by lateralized or foraminal cervical disc herniations, especially at C6-C7. Awareness of this pattern may aid in diagnosis and surgical planning.

Answer 262

dogs received I-123 scans with and without recombinant human TSH (rhTSH). Tumor radioactive iodine uptake (RAIU) at 24 hours was significantly increased with rhTSH (mean difference 8.85%;). TT4 and TSH levels also significantly increased post-rhTSH. At 8 hours, the RAIU difference was smaller and not statistically significant. Conclusions and Clinical Importance rhTSH enhances 24-hour radioactive iodine uptake in canine thyroid carcinoma, suggesting it may improve the efficacy of I-131 therapy and reduce environmental exposure.

Answer 263

Intravesicular ASB E. coli 212 was not inferior to antimicrobials for treating recurrent UTIs. This biotherapeutic could reduce antibiotic use and support antimicrobial stewardship in dogs with recurrent infections.

Answer 264

Conclusions and Clinical Importance SAM in HCM can both regress and develop over time. Cats with persistent SAM show more evidence of disease progression, making it a potentially important prognostic marker.

Answer 265

Dogs with CE and hypoalbuminemia had significantly lower 25(OH)D concentrations. Interestingly, retinol was increased, and α-tocopherol showed variable levels compared to healthy dogs. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Monitoring of 25(OH)D is recommended in dogs with severe CE, particularly those with low albumin.

Answer 266

A 1-year-old male cat presented with progressive mobility issues, macroglossia, and dysphagia. Muscle biopsy and immunohistochemistry confirmed dystrophin deficiency. Whole genome sequencing identified a novel stop gain mutation in the DMD gene (c.4849C>T; p.Gln1617Ter), consistent with a diagnosis of X-linked muscular dystrophy (MD). Conclusions and Clinical Importance This case demonstrates the utility of whole genome sequencing in veterinary diagnostics and provides a new genetic variant linked to feline muscular dystrophy, advancing both feline medicine and comparative disease modeling.

Answer 267

Proteinuria was defined as ≥30 mg/dL or a protein:USG ratio ≥1.5. Proteinuric dogs had significantly shorter median survival times compared to nonproteinuric dogs by both criteria (dipstick: 245 vs. 335 days; ratio: 237 vs. 304 days). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Proteinuria at diagnosis is associated with shorter survival in dogs with lymphoma. Routine urine evaluation may offer prognostic value.

Answer 268

Magnet-assisted endoscopy is a safe and effective method for removing ferromagnetic gastric foreign bodies, potentially avoiding surgery and its associated risks.

Answer 269

Imipenem susceptibility was high (98.86%) among Enterobacterales isolates. Conclusions and Clinical Importance CRE remain rare in US companion animals but show geographic and temporal clustering. Continued surveillance and regional antimicrobial stewardship are important to monitor and mitigate emergence.

Answer 270

At 12 months, relapse rates were highest in IMPA (35%) compared to IMHA (11%) and ITP (11%). At 24 months, relapse rates rose to 41% for IMPA, 18% for IMHA, and 23% for ITP. Most relapses in IMPA occurred within the first year. Vaccination post-diagnosis was not associated with relapse Conclusions and Clinical Importance IMPA has a significantly higher and earlier relapse rate compared to IMHA and ITP. Vaccination does not appear to influence relapse, though continued research is needed.

Answer 271

At diagnosis, 27% of hyperthyroid cats were hypertensive (SBP ≥160 mmHg). Post-radioiodine treatment, 49% of these cats normalized SBP, while 51% remained hypertensive. Among previously normotensive cats, 9.5% developed new hypertension. Post-treatment hypertension was not significantly associated with azotemia (12%) or hypothyroidism (15%). Cats with persistent hypertension were more frequently anxious (50% vs 17%). Conclusions and Clinical Importance Most hyperthyroid cats normalize blood pressure after treatment. Persistent or new hypertension appears more related to stress (“situational hypertension”) than to renal or thyroid function abnormalities.

Answer 272

CMBs were detected in 27% of dogs at baseline and 62% after radiation therapy. CMB count increased 14% per month post-treatment. CMBs were 4.7 times more likely to form in high-dose regions (>30 Gy) compared to low-dose areas (<20 Gy). Conclusions and Clinical Importance CMBs occur frequently in irradiated dogs, especially in high-dose regions. Their number increases over time, suggesting radiation as a likely cause.

Answer 273

Dogs underwent sentinel lymph node (SLN) extirpation guided by radiopharmaceuticals. SLNs were classified via Weishaar's histological system (HNO–HN3). SLN histologic status correlated with tumor aggression, but low-grade MCTs with normal-sized nonpalpable SLNs had favorable outcomes, suggesting limited impact of nodal classification in this low-risk group when SLNs are accurately identified and removed.

Answer 274

AI can reliably measure LV dimensions in dogs, with accuracy on par with expert cardiologists, supporting its clinical utility for standardized and rapid cardiac assessments.

Answer 275

Shorter prednisone tapers post-RT are feasible and safe for many dogs, potentially reducing corticosteroid-associated morbidity without increasing relapse.

Answer 276

Median age was 3 years, with 46% male cats. Short-term survival was 57%, and median overall survival time was 424 days. Edema (46%) was more common in non-survivors, and higher creatinine was associated with shorter survival. Immunosuppressive and antiproteinuric treatments were more frequent in survivors. Remission (partial or complete) occurred in 36% of cats and significantly improved both short- and long-term survival Conclusions and Clinical Importance PLN in cats carries a guarded prognosis, but appropriate treatment and achieving remission can significantly improve outcomes.

Answer 277

Serum NfL is a promising biomarker for differentiating idiopathic epilepsy from structural brain diseases and may correlate with lesion size in MUE and hydrocephalus.

Answer 278

EPI manifests when >85% of the pancreas is non-functional, leading to maldigestion and malnutrition. Beyond digestion, pancreatic enzymes have regulatory roles in glucose homeostasis and intestinal maturation. Conclusions and Clinical Importance While animal-derived enzymes remain standard, future research should further investigate and develop microbial enzyme-based therapies with full-spectrum digestive capability.

Answer 279

Neutropenia occurred in 12.3% of cases, with no significant difference between weight groups. Gastrointestinal adverse events were seen in 29.4% of asymptomatic (substage A) dogs Hospitalization occurred in 5%, with no significant difference between weight groups. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Vincristine at 0.6 mg/m² does not increase hematologic adverse events in smaller dogs. Body weight alone should not influence dosing adjustments for vincristine in lymphoma.

Answer 280

No adverse effects occurred despite some cats reaching higher-than-normal magnesium levels. Ionized calcium decreased in the magnesium group but increased in the control group. Four control cats developed hypercalcemia; none in the magnesium group did. FGF23 levels rose significantly in controls but remained stable with supplementation. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Magnesium-enriched PRD helps manage CKD-mineral bone disorder in cats, reducing FGF23 rise and hypercalcemia risk.

Answer 281

Ultrasound-diagnosed nephrocalcinosis was present in 61% of cats with CKD, increasing to 81% among hypercalcemic cats. Independent risk factors included ionized calcium (OR 1.27 per 0.1 mg/dL), phosphate (OR 1.16 per 0.1 mg/dL), creatinine (OR 1.29 per 0.1 mg/dL), and ALT (OR 2.08 per 10 U/L). CKD cats with nephrocalcinosis had greater increases in creatinine (0.03 mg/dL/month), phosphate (0.06 mg/dL/month), and weight loss (0.02 kg/month). FGF23 levels also rose more rapidly Conclusions and Clinical Importance Nephrocalcinosis is common in cats with CKD, particularly with hypercalcemia, and is linked to faster disease progression. Monitoring and early detection may guide prognosis and treatment decisions.

Answer 282

Dogs received insulin glargine 300 U/mL (IGla300) once daily (initial dose 0.5–0.8 U/kg). 92% of dogs achieved good or excellent glycemic control, with 59% managed with once-daily dosing and 41% requiring twice-daily. Hypoglycemia occurred in 6 dogs (6%). Dogs without concurrent disease were more likely to be successfully managed with once-daily dosing (72% vs 50%).

Answer 283

Lipoprotein profiles were analyzed via density profiling and grouped into 6 clusters. Dogs with primary HTG fell into 4 distinct clusters, including one with the highest levels of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (TRL) and LDLs, overlapping with some secondary HTG dogs. Two clusters showed moderate TRL and LDL intensities, while one mixed cluster (NTG and mild HTG) had high LDL and variable TRL. The remaining clusters included only NTG dogs with low TRL and LDL intensities. Clinical variables did not explain clustering patterns. Conclusions and Clinical Importance There are multiple lipoprotein subtypes in Miniature Schnauzers with HTG, which cannot be identified by triglyceride levels alone.

Answer 284

Adverse reactions occurred in 0.29% of donations (2.88 per 1,000 events), most often cardiorespiratory (0.08%) or behavioral (0.06%). Conscious blood donation was associated with a 4.4-fold increased risk of adverse events (95% CI: 2.5–7.9). Sedation and anxiolysis were commonly used and appeared protective. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Feline blood donation is safe with a low adverse reaction rate. Sedation significantly reduces risk and should be considered routine.

Answer 285

Four FEA 4-negative cats were transfused with FEA 4-positive red blood cells. The fourth cat developed alloantibodies—but not against FEA 4; instead, they targeted a previously unidentified antigen, now labeled FEA 6. These antibodies were detectable for over 4 months and primarily consisted of immunoglobulin M. Conclusions and Clinical Importance FEA 4 does not appear to be immunogenic. A new immunogenic erythrocyte antigen, FEA 6, has been discovered and warrants further study for its clinical relevance in feline transfusion medicine.

Answer 286

No significant association was found between county-level radon or residential proximity to active fracking wells and ML. Dogs with ML did live closer to wastewater wells on average (123 km vs. 206 km), but no significant differences were found in the proportion of dogs within 20 km of a fracking (11.5% vs. 6.7%, OR 1.81) or wastewater well (6.7% vs. 4.4%). Conclusions and Clinical Importance No clear environmental link was established between radon or fracking exposure and ML in dogs.

Answer 287

Levothyroxine was considered unnecessary in 59%, 53%, and 45% of cases, respectively. The percentage of dogs deemed truly hypothyroid ranged from 38% to 56% depending on the evaluator. Over half were classified as either unlikely to be hypothyroid or having no reason to suspect it. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Misdiagnosis of hypothyroidism in general practice is common.

Answer 288

Dogs with gallbladder mucoceles had significantly lower FGF19 levels (median 14.0 pg/mL) compared to healthy controls (median 145.3 pg/mL; P < ). This hormone, which regulates bile acid synthesis and GB filling, is known to be reduced in conditions of impaired bile flow. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Dogs with GBM have significantly decreased FGF19 levels, likely due to impaired GB emptying and disrupted bile acid signaling. This finding provides new insight into GBM pathophysiology.

Answer 289

Median acid exposure time was 3.3% with a median of 70 reflux events. Acid exposure time was not correlated with clinical severity scores or BOAS grade, but negatively correlated with age Post-surgery AET improved in all 4 dogs assessed, though not statistically tested.

Answer 290

Oral sodium phosphate can cause severe electrolyte disturbances in dogs. Veterinary practitioners should use caution when prescribing such agents, especially in older or at-risk patients.

Answer 291

Cats were divided based on whether enteral nutrition (EN) began <12 hours or >12 hours after hospital admission. Survival did not significantly differ (68% vs. 57%). Multivariable analysis identified increasing age (OR 1.313) and ascites (OR 6.415) as negative prognostic indicators. Interestingly, cats fed later had significantly shorter hospital stays (2.8 vs. 4.8 days).

Answer 292

Over 20 metric tons of systemic antimicrobials were purchased. The UK purchased significantly more amoxicillin-clavulanic acid and less third-gen cephalosporins than North America. Smaller clinics purchased more antimicrobials per veterinarian full-time equivalent (FTE).

Answer 293

EACA improved clot strength but did not affect survival or transfusion needs. Routine use of EACA in thrombocytopenic dogs is not supported, though it may benefit patients with active hemorrhage.

Answer 294

A sedation-awakening EEG protocol enhances detection of epileptiform discharges and may be valuable for repeated EEG monitoring in ambulatory epileptic dogs.

Answer 295

dogs with high cortisol had significantly poorer response to chemotherapy, shorter progression-free survival, and reduced overall survival. ALP activity and adrenal gland size were also significantly higher in this group. Additionally, glucocorticoid receptor (GCR) expression was lower in high cortisol dogs, though P-glycoprotein expression did not differ. Serum cortisol may serve as a useful prognostic marker and aid treatment planning.

Answer 296

Nonsurvivors had lower clotting strength, greater clot lysis, and longer clotting times. Hypocoagulable profiles were also more frequently associated with AKI and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Hypocoagulability correlates with increased risk of death and complications, emphasizing the utility of coagulation profiling in these patients

Answer 297

Whole genome sequencing of an affected cat with X-linked dystrophin-deficient muscular dystrophy (MD) identified a de novo nonsense variant in the DMD gene. An initial 1-bp deletion in the felCat9 assembly was determined to be a false positive due to misassembly. Conclusions and Clinical Importance This study confirms a de novo nonsense DMD variant as the cause of X-linked MD in a cat and highlights the necessity of full DMD gene genotyping in suspected cases, even when parents are unaffected.

Answer 298

Dogs with HC had significantly reduced muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) and increased intramuscular (IM) fat infiltration. Dogs with lower HCSA or lower muscle attenuation (L3HU) had significantly shorter survival times (median 670 vs. 949 days; and 523 vs. 949 days). VCSA was not significantly associated with survival. Conclusions and Clinical Importance HC in dogs is associated with muscle wasting and IM fat infiltration, both of which predict poorer outcomes. Advanced imaging myoetrics like HCSA and L3HU may aid in prognosis.

JVIM 2024 Flashcards

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