JW Flashcards
1
Q
Ubiquitination is the ____ pathway
A
degradation
2
Q
Oxidation number of Group 1A
A
+1
3
Q
Oxidation number of Group 2A
A
+2
4
Q
Oxidation number of Halogens
A
usually -1, positive with Oxygen
5
Q
Oxidation number of an element by itself
A
0
6
Q
Oxidation number of a monatomic ion
A
ion charge
7
Q
Oxidation number of H
A
8
Q
Oxidation number of Oxygen
A
9
Q
Oxidation number of Flourine
A
10
Q
Sum of oxidation numbers for a neutral compound
A
0
11
Q
Sum of oxidation numbers for a polyatomic ion
A
ion charge
12
Q
ADP + Pi is more disordered than ATP due to the
A
higher energy content in the three phosphate groups of ATP.
13
Q
What states are not included in Keq (equilibrium constant)?
A
Pure solids and pure liquids, including solvents
14
Q
A solution used to calibrate spectrophotometry, IR spectroscopy, chromatography, and fluorimetry
A
blank solution
15
Q
Molecules with the same molecular formula but different structure/arrangement of atoms
A
Isomers
16
Q
Molecules with the same molecular form but display different connectivity of their atoms
A
Constitutional (or structural) isomers
17
Q
Equation for power
A
P = E/t
18
Q
CO2 (g) is more soluble in water than O2 (g) meaning that more O2 (gas)
A
will remain in gas form which will increase the pressure in a tube
19
Q
The general molecular formula of esters
A
R-COO-R’ where R and R’ are alkyl groups (hydrocarbon chain)
20
Q
Function of lactate dehydrogenase
A
catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate (a three carbon molecule) into lactate (a three carbon molecule) during anaerobic respiration.
20
Q
A cellular process that produces energy (ATP) in the absence of oxygen
A
anaerobic respiration
20
Q
Vitamin B3 (niacin) functions as a precursor for the redox coenzymes
A
NAD and NADP
21
Q
Which coenzyme does lactate dehydrogenase use to convert pyruvate to lactate?
A
NAD, accepting a hydrogen atom making it NADH.
Niacin (vitamin B3) is the precursor to NAD
22
Q
Structure of acyl functional group
A
23
Structure of isobutyl functional group
24
An organometallic compound with the general formula RMgX where R is an organic group, typically an alkyl (like isobutyl) or aryl (like benzyl) group, magnesium, and a halogen
Grignard reagent
25
The inhibitor binds to the same active site as the substrate, preventing the substrate from binding
competitive
26
The inhibitor binds to the enzyme-substrate complex, not the free enzyme
uncompetitive inhibition
27
Inhibitor that reduces the enzyme's activity regardless of substrate concentration
noncompetitive inhibition
28
A type of enzyme inhibition where the inhibitor can bind to the enzyme in two ways, exhibiting both competitive and noncompetitive inhibition
mixed inhibition
29
Questions related to reaction rate and substrates are likely referring to
the michaelis menten equation which shows the limiting rate at which the system is approaches saturating substrate concentration at a given enzyme concentration
30
Buffers help enzymes by
providing a stable pH environment to optimize activity since enzymes have specific pH ranges where they function optimally
31
Proteolytic cleavage involves hydrolysis (water breaking bond between two AA) and its mechanism is
nucleophilic attack by side chain with the enzyme on the carbonyl carbon on the bond being broken (scissile bond)
32
Equation for hydrostatic pressure (pressure exerted by a fluid at rest due to gravity)
P=(density)(gravity)(depth)
A taller water column leads to greater force d/t gravity and more pressure at the bottom
33
Atomic radii trend
increase down and to the left
34
A higher Ka represents
a strong acid readily deprotonated
35
How are Ka and pKa related?
inversely
36
Specific region of RNA polymerase that controls the size and shape of molecules allowed to enter the active site for RNA synthesis
steric gate
37
Structure of adenine
purine
38
Structure of Guanine
purine
39
Structure of thymine
pyrimidine
40
Structure of cytosine
pyrimidine
41
Structure of uracil
pyrimidine
42
Equation for uniform electric field between two plates
electric field (E) = change in voltage (V) / distance between the plates (d)
43
Equation for energy consumption
E consumption (Wh) =power (P) x time (h)
44
A neuron can be excited or inhibited leading to
depolarization or hyperpolarization
45
Describes a post synaptic neuron stimulated by one neuron repeatedly
temporal summation
46
Describes a post synaptic neuron stimulated by multiple neurons repeatedly
spatial summation
47
Electromagnetic spectrum lies between the UV and IR regions and spans of approximately
400-800
48
The first source of genetic variation in the nuclei produced by meiosis
crossover events
49
A pair of sister chromatids (the traditional chromosome shape) is referred to as a
dyad
50
The two homologous chromosomes are referred to as a
tetrad
51
Two GI hormones that inhibit gastric acid secretion and gastric motility and stimulates the flow of pancreatic juices
secretin and glucagon
52
Which hormone along with secretin releases pancreatic juice rich in digestive enzymes
cholecystokinin (CCK)
53
A hormone produced by the hypothalamus and stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete TSH
thyrotropin-releasing hormone
54
Hormone produced by anterior pituitary and stimulates the thyroid gland to produce T3 and T4
TSH
55
Hormones that cannot passively pass through the cell membrane, a fatty barrier
peptide/water soluble hormones.
They bind to specific receptor proteins located on the cell membrane triggering a cascade of events within the cell.
The bound receptor activates an enzyme that produces a second messenger molecule inside of the cell (i.e. cyclic AMP)
56
Most common inhibitory neurotransmitters in the brain
GABA and glycine
57
Most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
glutamate
58
Agonists bind to receptors produce
a biological response
59
Antagonists bind to receptors produce
no biological response
60
Enzyme that removes a phosphate group from glucose-6-phosphate, forming glucose in a hydrolase reaction
glucose-6-phosphatase
61
Enzyme that removes a phosphate group from a phosphorylated protein through a hydrolase reaction
protein phosphatase
62
Enzyme that transfers a phosphate from ATP to glucose forming glucose 6 phosphate by transferase reaction
hexokinase
63
Enzyme that transfers a phosphate group from ATP to an amino acid side chain in a protein by a transferase reaction
protein kinase
64
As the pressure of a gas above a liquid increases, more of that gas will
dissolve in the liquid
65
A function group in a molecule (or ion) that can gain or lose a proton depending on the surrounding pH
ionizable group
66
Channel proteins that form pores in the membranes of biological cells mainly facilitate water transport between cells
aquaporins
67
The resistance the blood vessels offers to blood flow
total peripheral resistance
In dehydrated individuals, decreased plasma volume causes an increase in blood viscosity which can lead to an increase in total peripheral resistance.
68
The part of the nephron with the highest osmotic value compared to blood
thin descending limb of Henle which is passively permeable to water but not to solutes
69
rRNA is found in
ribosomes which are made up of rRNA and ribosomal proteins
70
A class of enzymes that cleave the glycosidic bond between a nitrogenous base and a sugar molecule
N-glycosidases
71
Enzymes that cleave the glycosidic bond between a sugar molecule and an oxygen atom
O-glycosidases
72
Enzymes involved in redox reactions which catalyze hydrogen atom transfer
dehydrogenases
73
Enzymes that remove phosphate groups from molecules
phosphatases
74
A dominant allele (a variant form of a gene) masks the expression of the recessive allele.
autosomal recessive diseases
75
Equation that calculates a population's genetic and allele frequencies during genetic equilibrium
76
Pathway followed by a membrane glycoprotein in a eukaryotic cell
Rough ER -> transport vesicle -> cis-Golgi -> trans Golgi -> plasma membrane
77
apoptosis in comparison to necrosis is a
caspase-mediated process
78
The presence of only one copy of a particular gene in an individual
hemizygous
79
Increase in testosterone levels signal the hypothalamus and pituitary gland to decrease the release of
FSH and LH
80
The contents of a cell vesicle are released to the exterior through the fusion of the vesicle membrane with the cell membrane
exocytosis
81
Rapid cell division and active metabolism in bacterial growth
log phase
82
The initial phase of bacterial growth where the bacterial population adjusts to the new environment
lag phase
83
The growth rate of bacteria slows down and enters the stationary phase
stationary phase
84
The number of dying or inactive cells exceeds the number of new cells produced in bacteria growth
death phase
85
Obligate aerobes in a tube
require oxygen to grow and reproduce and cannot tolerate anaerobic environment
86
Obligate anaerobes in a tube
require an anaerobic environment for growth
87
Facultative anaerobes in a tube
a microorganism that can survive and grow in both the presence and absence of oxygen (typically can grow faster in aerobic environment)
88
Aerotolerant anaerobes in a tube
anaerobic organism that grow in absence of oxygen but can tolerate presence of oxygen
89
Standard free energy is the change that occurs when a rxn is carried out under standard temperature (298 K) and pressure (1 atm) for the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate is
28.9 kJ/mol
this value represents the energy required to add a phosphoryl group to ADP to form ATP under these conditions.
90
Sees society as a battle ground where different groups compete for power and resources due to inequalities and imbalances leading to social conflicts and societal changes
conflict theory
91
Observations, leading to broader generalizations beyond the initial data points
inductive reasoning
92
starts from a general theory or principle and applies it to a specific case to test its validity
deductive reasoning
93
convert mechanical vibrations into electrical signals, facilitating auditory perception
hair cells
94
Theory concerns the potential for population growth to outpace resource availability leading to famine, disease, and other negative outcomes. States human populations tend to grow exponentially (geometrically) whereas the food supply and resources can only increase linearly (arithmetically)
Mathusian theory
95
Organisms are motivated to take action in order to reduce drives such as hunger, thirst, anxiety, etc.
drive reduction theory
96
Consists of specialized neurons that activate both during an individuals actions and when they observe the same actions in others.
the mirror neuron system
97
Dopamine agonists, levodopa, and other medications targeting dopamine levels are more commonly used to manage motor symptoms of
parkinsons disease
98
Function of GABA agonists
these medications enhance the activity of GABA a neurotransmitter that inhibits brain activity. They can have anxiolytic (anti-anxiety), sedative, and anticonvulsant (anti-seizure) effects.
99
A field within epidemiology that focuses on the influence of social factors and environments on health outcomes across populations
social epidemiology
100
A pivotal neurotransmitter for wakefulness and alertness
histamine
101
Specialized sensory receptors are primarily responsible for detecting sustained pressure and textures on skin
Merkel cells
102
language development is primarily influenced by reinforcement and conditioning
behavioralist theory
103
Language acquisition is driven by innate biological factors such as universal grammar proposed by chomsky
nativist theory
104
theory emphasizes the importance of observational learning and social interactions in language acquisition
social learning
105
Language development results from the interplay between biological factors and environmental influences
interactionist theory
106
Interconnected systems of concepts while spreading activation is the process by which the activation of one concept triggers the activation of related concepts
semantic networks
107
Individuals in group settings experience a loss of self awareness and engage in behaviors that align with group norms or external influences
deindividuation
108
Improved task performance in the presence of others
social facilitation
109
the tendency for group discussion to enhance the initial tendencies of group members
group polarization
110
The tendency for individuals to exert less effort in a group setting compared to when working individually
social loafing
111
Relates to how well a study is conducted
internal validity
112
Relates to how applicable the findings are in the real world
external validity
113
The extent to which a study appears to measure what it clams to measure
face validity
114
Refers to the extent to which a study accurately measures the theoretical constructs or concepts it claims to measure
construct validity
115
Sociological concept developed by Cooley suggests that individuals develop their self-concept based on how they believe others perceive them
looking-glass self
116
Occurs when individuals learn by observing the behaviors and outcomes of others
modeling or observational learning
117
Refers to the complying with the instructions or commands of authority figures
obedience
118
GTPases, proteases, and phosphatases are all examples of
hydrolases
119
Allows researchers to visually detect the presence of a target molecule in a sample. It can be especially helpful in vivo experiments as they usually do not affect normal function.
radioactive labeling
120
During the hydrolysis of GTP, which phosphate group is released?
y-phosphate is released (the third phosphate) as it is the most energetically unstable
121
Two hydrophobic amino acids that cannot be inserted into an alpha helix because they will disrupt the secondary structure of that helix
glycine (G) and proline (P)
122
Another word for negatively charged amino acid
anionic
123
Another word for positively charged amino acid
cationic
124
Common electron-withdrawing groups (EWGs) in organic chemistry include
nitro groups (-NO2)
cyano groups (-CN)
carbonyl groups (such as aldehydes,
ketones, esters, and carboxylic acids),
trifluoromethyl groups (-CF3)
halogens (F, Cl, Br, I)
125
Releasing energy upon absorption corresponds to
the difference between their absorption and emission spectra
126
How to calculate Vmax with kcat and [enzyme]
Vmax= kcat*[enzyme]
127
How to calculate kcat
kcat=Vmax/[enzyme]
128
The strength of a conjugate base is _____ related to the strength of its corresponding acid
inversely
this relationship is shown by (Ka)(Kb)=Kw
129
The radius of the electrons orbit will _____ as it moves to a higher energy level
increases
130
The potential energy of an electron will ____ as it moves to a higher energy level
increase
131
As an electron moves to a higher energy level, it is further away from the nucleus and has a lower velocity. There its kinetic energy
decreases
132
Total energy of an electron is
PE + KE = total energy
total energy will increase as the electron moves to a higher state d/t increase in PE
133
Buffering zones on a titration curve correspond to
carbonyl groups which have pKa around 2-4 meaning they have buffering capacity in the acidic range
134
disulfide bonds are major contributors to
tertiary protein structure
135
The lowest binding free energy (Gibbs free energy) has the _____ binding affinity among the systems
highest
136
Regions likely to contain Van der Waals forces
non-polar, hydrophobic regions
137
According to Poiseuille's law, fluid resistance is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the radius meaning smaller diameters lead to
significantly higher resistance
138
Arterioriols are small vessels that play a crucial role in regulating
blood flow to various body regions by adjusting their diameter thereby controlling the resistance and managing BP
139
DNA needs to be highly stable to preserve genetic information across cell generations, whereas RNA, which contains uracil, is more
transient and does not require the same level of stability
140
What base makes DNA more stable than RNA?
The methyl group on thymine (instead of uracil) makes DNA more stable by making thymine more resistant to damage such as UV radiation
141
Add fractions by finding
least common denominator
142
143
The force between two charged objects is given by
Coulomb's law
144
which species is reduced or oxidized at the anode and cathode
An Ox and a Red Cat
Anode=oxidation
Cathode= reduction
145
Standard reduction potential (E) measures how likely a species is to be
reduced (gain electrons)
146
A more positive Standard reduction potential (E) means a species is more likely to
gain electrons and be reduced
147
A more negative Standard reduction potential (E) means a species is more likely to
lose electrons and become oxidized
148
Bronsted Lowry base is defined as a species that accepts a
proton
example: OH (hydroxide ions) can easily accept a proton to form water
149
Hydroxide ions are not electron _____.
acceptors
The oxygen in OH- is already negatively charged meaning it has already gained an extra electron. The oxygen atom in OH- does not need or want to accept additional electrons
150
A nucleophile is a species that
donates an electron pair to another atom, usually an electrophile
example: OH- carrys a negative charge d/t extra electrons on oxygen
151
Lewis base is defined as
an electron pair donor
152
Periodic trend for increasing boiling point
down a column
153
Separation of two gases can occur through condensation by
decreasing temperature
154
The formation of complex ions (i.e. ligand exchange reactions) are typically spontaneous d/t
the large increase in stability provided by the coordination of ligands
155
A higher solubility product constant (Ksp) is more soluble and corresponds to
a more negative ΔG (more spontaneous dissolution)
ΔG = -RTlnKsp
156
Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom, which forms an ion. The higher the ionization energy, the more difficult it is to
remove an electron
157
Compounds with lower molar masses have higher
mole numbers
158
Henderson Hasselbach equation
159
Solubility Product Constant (Ksp) is an equilibrium constant that represents the
maximum concentration of ions a compound can dissolve in solution before it precipitates
160
Building blocks of lipids
fatty acids
161
Lipids formed by esterification of glycerol with fatty acids
glycerides
162
Complex lipids composed of a glycerol backbone, two fatty acids, a phosphate group, and a polar head. They are components of cell membranes forming a bilayer structure that separates the intracellular and extracellular environments.
phospholipids
163
Lipids characterized by their tetracyclic ring structure. Include cholesterol which is a component of cell membranes and a precursor for steroid hormones
steroids
164
Composed of a glycerol backbone and three fatty acid chains. Esterification is the formation of ester bonds between the carbonyl group of each fatty acid and the hydroxyl groups of glycerol.
triacyglycerol
165
The buoyant force on an object submerged in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fuid displaced by the object
archimedes principle
166
Magnetism by materials that are weakly attracted to an external magnetic field.
Paramagnetism; this attraction is d/t the presence of unpaired electrons in the material's atoms
167
Name the compound
acetic acid
168
Name the compound
ethanol
169
Name the compound
propionic acid
170
Name the compound
butyric acid
171
equation for power
Power = Energy/Time
172
Equation for KE
KE = 1/2(m)(v^2)
173
A change in convex lens's focal length from shorter to longer impacts magnification and field of view resulting in
a less shrunk, real image.
174
Vapor pressure is inversely related to
the strength of the intermolecular forces; when intermolecular forces are strong, vapor pressure is low, when intermolecular forces are weak, vapor pressure is high
175
Density is affected by heating because as temperature of a substance increases, the ____ increases too
volume
176
Proteins that have carbohydrates covalently attached to them
glycoproteins
177
In DNA, a glycosidic bond specifically links the nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine) to the deoxyribose sugar. This is an
N-glycosidic bond, where the nitrogen atom of the base (N9 in purines, N1 in pyrimidines) is covalently linked to the C1' carbon atom of the sugar.
178
Tissue that produces all types of blood cells, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets with a rapid turnover rate.
Hematopoietic tissue
179
Tissue used for structure or lipid storage generally have a ____ turnover rate
slow
180
If reduction potential is positive then
it the molecule has a greater tendency of gaining electrons and a stronger oxidizing power
181
Amino acid with a thioether group not a thiol group
Methionine
182
The only reaction in the krebs cycle that produced FAD
Succinate to Fumarate
183
A type of allosteric regulation where the final product of a metabolic pathway inhibits an earlier enzyme in the pathway
feedback inhibition
184
Involves the addition or removal of chemical groups (ie phosphate groups) to or from an enzyme which can alter its activity
covalent modification
185
The binding of a substrate to one subunit can influence the binding of the substrate to other subunits leading to either increased or decreased activity
cooperativity
186
Structure that contains flat epithelial cells arranged in a single layer with a small, centrally located nucleus
the inner surface of capillaries
187
Organ lined with various cell types including enterocytes, goblet cells, and enteroendocrine cells.
small intestine mucosa
188
Composed of multiple layers of cells including keratinocytes and melanocytes
epidermis layer of the skin
189
Lined with transitional epithelium, which is a specialized type of epithelium that can stretch and contract to accommodate changes in bladder volume
the inner surface of the urinary bladder
190
Represents the concentration at which the ligand occupies 50% of the receptor sites. The lower the Ki, the
higher the affinity for binding to its receptor because less of the ligand is needed to bing with a receptor
191
Stop codons in mRNA
UAA, UAG, UGA
192
Stop codons in genomic sequences
TAA, TGA, TAG
193
A neuron's membrane potential becomes more negative relative to its resting state due to the increased outward flow of K+ This makes it harder the for neuron to fire an action potential, essentially decreasing its excitability
hyperpolarization
194
A process where multiple mRNA transcripts are produced from a single gene
Alternative pre-mRNA splicing
195
The larger and more positive Gibbs free energy of unfolding (Gu) is the more ____ the protein is its folded state.
stable
Conversely, a smaller or negative Gu indicates a less stable protein and more prone to unfolding
196
The average molecular weight of an amino acid
110 Da ~ 0.11 kDa
197
Approximate weight of a monomer (basic building block of polymers)
14 kDa
198
These cells are responsible for producing and releasing the hormone glucagon.
Alpha islet cells, also known as alpha cells, are a type of cell found in the pancreatic islets of Langerhans, which are part of the pancreas.
199
Specialized endocrine cells within the pancreas responsible for producing and releasing the hormone insulin.
Beta islet cells, also known as β-cells
200
A single nucleotide change in DNA leads to a different amino acid being incorporated into a protein. This change can alter the protein's structure and function, potentially leading to various effects, from minor changes in function to severe diseases.
Missense mutation
201
This occurs when a non-multiple of three base pairs are inserted or deleted, causing all subsequent codons to be read incorrectly. This can lead to a completely different protein being synthesized, often with a non-functional result.
frameshift mutation is a type of genetic mutation that disrupts the normal reading frame of DNA or RNA
202
a change in the DNA sequence of a gene that does not affect the amino acid sequence of the protein it codes for. This means the mutation occurs without changing the function of the protein produced.
silent mutation
203
a genetic alteration that introduces a premature stop codon (also known as a nonsense codon) into a DNA sequence, resulting in the production of a truncated and often non-functional protein. This mutation disrupts the normal process of protein synthesis, causing the ribosome to terminate translation earlier than expected.
nonsense mutation
204
a process where closely related populations or species evolve distinct traits and eventually become different species, often due to different environments or selective pressures.
divergent evolution
205
the evolutionary process where distantly related organisms develop similar traits or body structures independently, often in response to similar environmental pressures or ecological niches. These similar traits, known as analogous structures, arise not from shared ancestry but from the selective advantages of similar adaptations.
convergent evolution
206
the independent development of similar traits in closely related species that have experienced similar selective pressures. This means that even though the lineages evolved separately, they have ended up with similar phenotypes due to adapting to similar environments.
parallel evolution
207
a unique network of blood vessels that connects the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary gland, allowing for the efficient transport of hypothalamic hormones to the pituitary, bypassing general circulation.
hypophyseal portal system
208
If the hypophyseal portal system were disrupted, the inhibitory function of dopamine will be reduced, leading to an increase in
prolactin levels
209
It the hydroxyl group is below the plan of the ring (downward)
alpha
210
If the hydroxyl group is above the plan of the ring (upward)
beta
211
Part of digestive tract that contains both smooth and striated muscle
esophagus
212
How does the body compensate for blood loss and hypotension?
total peripheral resistance which helps maintain blood pressure
213
Diminished blood flow to the right coronary artery would directly result in
a decrease in blood pH
214
cells involved in lipid storage and metabolism
fat cells
215
Activity decreases when insulin levels are high
phosphoenolpyruvate PEP carboxykinase
216
Glucokinase, pyruvate kinase, and Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase all increase with
high insulin/glucagon ratio
217
multipotent stem cells that differentiate into various types of cells, and their function is not related to digestion or destroying foreign substances
mesenchymal cells
218
Immune cells that differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells
monocytes
219
type of connective tissue that secrete the extracellular matrix
fibroblasts
