Kaplan — Behavioral Sciences Flashcards
(225 cards)
1
Q
Learning
A
Way in which we acquire behaviors
2
Q
Stimulus
A
Anything to which an organism can respond, including sensory inputs
3
Q
Habituation
A
Repeated exposure to the same stimulus can cause a decrease in response
4
Q
Dishabituation
A
Recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred
Normally the result of a second stimulus
5
Q
Associative learning
A
Creation of a pairing/association between two stimuli or between a behavior and a response
6
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Classical conditioning
A
Type of associative learning that takes advantage of biological, instinctual responses
7
Q
Unconditioned stimulus
A
Any stimulus that brings about such a reflexive response
8
Q
Unconditioned response
A
Innate or reflexive response to a stimulus
9
Q
Neutral stimulus
A
Stimulus that does not produce a reflexive response
10
Q
Signaling stimulus
A
Neutral stimulus that has the potential to be used as a conditioning stimulus
11
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Conditioned stimulus
A
Neutral stimulus that has been conditioned to produce the unconditioned response
12
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Conditioned response
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Unconditioned response that has now been trained to respond to a neutral stimulus
13
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Extinction
A
When the organism has become habituated to the conditioned stimulus and no longer responds with the conditioned response
14
Q
Spontaneous recovery
A
When an extinct conditioned stimulus is presented again, a weak conditioned response can sometimes be exhibited
15
Q
Generalization
A
Broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response
16
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Discrimination
A
Organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli
17
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Operant conditioning
A
Links voluntary behaviors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of those behaviors
18
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Behaviorism
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Theory that all behaviors are conditioned
B. F. Skinner
19
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Reinforcement
A
Process of increasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behavior
20
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Positive reinforcers
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Adding a positive consequence or incentive to increase a behavior
21
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Negative reinforcers
A
Removing an unpleasant thing to increase a behavior
22
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Escape learning
A
Role of behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists
23
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Avoidance learning
A
Meant to prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen
24
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Primary reinforcer
A
Something that the organism responds to naturally
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Conditioned reinforcer
Something that the organism has been trained to respond that they otherwise wouldn’t naturally
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Secondary reinforcer
Conditioned reinforcer
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Discriminative stimulus
A stimulus that has not been trained for the organism to respond to but has occurred incidentally
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Punishment
Uses conditioning to reduce the occurrence of a behavior
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Positive punishment
Adds an unpleasant consequence in response to a behavior to reduce that behavior
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Negative punishment
Reduction of behavior when a stimulus is removed
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Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule
Reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior
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Continuous reinforcement
FR schedule where behavior is rewarded every time it is performed
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Variable-ratio (VR) schedule
Reinforce a behavior after a variable number of performances of the behavior
Works the fastest for learning a new behavior and is also the most resistance to extinction
34
Fixed-interval (FI) schedule
Reinforce the first instance of behavior after a specified time period has elapsed
Works the slowest
35
Variable-interval (VI) schedule
Reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying interval of time
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Shaping
Processing of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors to allow for the training of extremely complicated behaviors
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Latent learning
Learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced
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Problem solving
Method of learning that steps outside the standard behaviorist approach
Trial-and-error approach
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Preparedness
Predisposition of animals to learn behaviors based on their natural abilities and instincts
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Instinctive drift
Difficulty imposed by training animals to behave opposite their instinct
41
Observational learning
Processing of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others
42
Mirror neurons
Neurons located in the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex and fire both when an individual performs an action and when that individual observes someone else performing an action
43
Modeling
Showing individuals how to behave
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Encoding
Process of putting new information into memory
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Automatic processing
Information that is gained without effort
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Controlled processing
Active memorization (e.g. studying)
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Visual encoding
Visualizing to encode information
Weakest method
48
Acoustic encoding
Storing how it sounds
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Semantic encoding
Putting information in a meaningful context
Strongest method
50
Self-reference effect
Our ability to recall information best when it’s in the context of our own lives
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Maintenance rehearsal
Repetition of a piece of information to either keep it within working memory or store it in short-term and eventually long-term memory
52
Mnemonics
Acronyms or rhyming phrases that provide a vivid organization of the information we are trying to remember
53
Method of loci
Associating each item in the list with a location along a route through a building that has already been memorized
54
Peg-word system
Associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers (e.g. remembering you need to buy one egg by visualizing one egg being fried)
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Chunking
Memory trick that involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning
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Sensory memory
Shortest lasting memory and first reservoir
Consists of both iconic & echoic memory
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Iconic memory
Visual memory
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Echoic memory
Auditory memory
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Whole-report
Asking participants in memory study to repeat everything that they remember in a set
Isn’t as accurate as partial-report
60
Partial-report
Asking participants to list a particular row or part of the stimulus presentation
Is more accurate
61
Short-term memory
Fades after 30 seconds
When we pay attention to some information that we are exposed to
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7 +/- 2 rule
Short-term memory capacity
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Location of short-term memory
Hippocampus
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Working memory
Enables us to keep a few pieces of information in our consciousness simultaneously and manipulate that information
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Location of working memory
Hippocampus primarily
Involvement of frontal and parietal lobes
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Elaborative rehearsal
Association of information already stored in long-term memory
67
Implicit memory
Our skills and conditioned responses
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Explicit memory
Memories that require conscious recall
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Semantic memory
Type of explicit memory that consists of the facts we know
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Episodic memory
Type of explicit memory that includes our experiences
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Retrieval
Process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained
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Recall
Retrieval and statement of previously learned information
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Recognition
Process of merely identifying a piece of information that was previously learned
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Relearning
Another way of demonstrating that information has been stored in long-term memory
Previously learned memories are learned faster
75
Spacing effect
Longer amount of time between sessions of re-learning, greater the retention of information later on
76
Semantic network
The way that concepts are linked on the brain based on similar meaning
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Spreading activation
When one node of our semantic network is activated, other linked concepts around it are also unconsciously activated
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Priming
Recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory
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Context effects
Memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place
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State-dependent memory
Being the same mental state as when learning information aids recall
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Serial position effect
Higher recall for the first and last pieces of information in a list
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Primacy effect
Being more able to remember the first items on a list
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Regency effect
Being more able to remember the second items on a list
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Alzheimer’s disease
Degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of Ach neurons that link to the hippocampus
Marked by progressive dementia and memory loss with atrophy of the brain
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Microscopic findings of Alzheimer’s
Neurofibrillary tangles and beta-amyloid plaques
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Sundowning
Increase in dysfunction in the late afternoon and evening
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Korsakoff’s syndrome
Form of memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain
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Retrograde amnesia
Loss of previously formed memories
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Anterograde amnesia
Inability to form new memories
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Cofabulation
Process of creating vivid but fabricated memories
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Agnosia
Ability of recognize objects, peoples, or sounds (normally only one of the three)
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Interference
Retrieval error caused by the existence of other information
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Proactive interference
Old information interferes with new learning
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Retroactive interference
New information causes forgetting of old information
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Prospective memory
Remembering to perform a task in the future
Remains intact when event-based
96
Misinformation effect
When being exposed to misinformation, people will be caused to misremember
97
Source-monitoring error
Involves confusion between semantic and episodic memory
A person remembers the details of an event but confuses the context under which those details were gained
98
Neuroplasticity
Neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli as our brain develops
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Synaptic pruning
Weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered, increasing the efficiency of ours brains’ ability to process information
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Long-term potentiation
As a stimulus is repeated, the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing NTs and receptor sites on the other side of the synapse increase
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Cognition
How our brains process and react to the information overload presented us by the world
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Dual-coding theory
Both verbal association & visual images are used to process and store information
Builds redundancy and increases the chance that information can retrieved and used effectively when cued
103
Information processing model
- Thinking requires sensation, encoding, & storage of stimuli
- Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain
- Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems
- Dependent on cognitive level, context of problem, & complexity of problem
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Situational modification
One situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems
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Cognitive development
Development of one’s ability to think and solve the problems across the lifespan
106
Jean Piget
Divided cognitive development into 4 stages
1. Sensorimotor
2. Preoperational
3. Concrete operational
4. Formal operational
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Schema
Organized patterns of behavior and thought
108
Adaptation
How new information is processed
Consists of assimilation and accommodation
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Assimilation
Processing of classifying new information into existing schemata
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Accommodation
Process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass this new information
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Sensorimotor stage
From birth to 2 years of age
Learns to manipulate their environment in order to meet physical needs
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Primary circular reactions
Repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance
Body movement is found soothing
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Secondary circular reactions
When manipulation is focused on something outside the body
Body movement gets response from environment
114
Object permanence
Understanding that objects continue to exist when out of view
115
Representational thought
Child has begun to create mental representations of external objects and events
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Preoperational stage
From 2-7 years
Characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, & centration
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Symbolic thinking
Ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination
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Egocentrism
Inability to imagine what another person may think or feel
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Centration
Tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon or inability to understand the concept of conservation
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Conservation
Focusing on the number rather than actual quantity
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Concrete operational stage
From 7-11 years of age
Understand conservation and consider the perspectives of others and engage in logical thought as long as they are working with concrete objects or directly available information
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Formal operational stage
Starts at 11 years of age
Marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas
123
Lee Vygotsky
Said that the engine driving cognitive development is the child’s internalization of his/her culture
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Fluid intelligence
Consists of problem-solving skills
125
Crystallized intelligence
Use of learned skills and knowledge
126
Delirium
Rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical (non-psychological causes
Can be the result of pH disturbances, low blood sugar, infection, drug reaction, alcohol withdrawal, pain
127
Mental set
Tendency to approach similar problems in the same way
128
Functional fixedness
The inability to consider how to use an object in a non-traditional manner
129
Trial-and-error
Less sophisticated type of problem solving in which various solution are tried until one is found that seems to work
130
Algorithm
Formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem
131
Deductive reasoning
Starts from a set of general rules and draws a conclusions from the information given
Example: logic puzzle
132
Inductive reasoning
Create a theory via generalizations
133
Heuristics
Simplified principles used to make decisions
Colloquially called rules of thumb
134
Availability heuristic
When we try to decide how likely something is
135
Representativeness heuristic
Categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the cateogry
136
Base rate fallacy
Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information
137
Discrimination principle
Evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work
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Confirmation bias
Tendency to focus on information that fits an individual’s beliefs while rejecting information that goes against them
139
Overconfidence
Tendency to erroneously interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible
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Belief perseverance
Inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary
141
Intuition
Ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence
142
Recognition-primed decision model
Brain is sorting through a wide variety of information to match a pattern
143
Emotion
Subjective experience of a person in a certain situation
144
Multiple intelligences
There exists 7 kinds of intelligence
Western culture values linguistic and logical-mathematical
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Intelligence quotient (IQ)
Performance on different cognitive tasks is positively correlated indicating an underlying factor is playing a role
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Consciousness
One’s level of awareness of both the world and one’s own existence within the world
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Alertness
State of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think
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Neurological circuit for alertness
Fibers from the prefrontal cortex communicate with the reticular formation (neural structure in brain stem)
149
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Records an average of electrical patterns within different portions of the brain
150
Beta waves
High frequency waves that occur when the person is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration
151
Alpha waves
Awake but relaxes with our eyes closed and are somewhat slower than beta waves
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Stage 1 of sleep
Characterized by theta waves
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Theta waves
Irregular waveforms with slower frequencies and higher voltages
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Stage 2 of sleep
Characterized by sleep spindles and K complexes
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Stages 3 and 4 of sleep
Called slow wave sleep
Characterized by delta waves (low-frequency, high-voltage sleep waves)
Associated with cognitive recovery and memory consolidation
156
Non-rapid eye movement sleep
Stages 1-4
157
Rapid eye movement sleep
Arousal levels are that of wakefulness but the muscles are paralyzed
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Sleep cycle
Complete progression through the sleep stages
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Circadian rhythms
Regulates daily cycle of waking and sleeping
160
Melatonin
Secreted by pineal gland
Induces sleepiness due to decreasing light
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Cortisol
Contributes to wakefulness
162
Activation-synthesis theory
Caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry and the subsequent stitching together of unrelated information
163
Problem-solving dream theory
Way to solve problems while you are sleeping
164
Cognitive process dream theory
Merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness
165
Dyssomnia
Disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep or avoid sleep
166
Parasomnia
Abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep
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Insomnia
Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep
168
Narcolepsy
Condition characterized by lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep
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Cataplexy
Loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours
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Sleep paralysis
Sensation of being unable to move despite being awake
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Hypnagogic or hypnopompic hallucinations
Hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening
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Sleep apnea
Inability to breathe during sleep
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Obstructive sleep apnea
A physical blockage in the pharynx or trachea prevents airflow
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Central sleep apnea
Brain fails to send signals to the diaphragm to breathe
175
Night terrors
Periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow-wave sleep
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Sleepwalking
Movement during sleep
177
Sleep deprivation
Result from as little as one night without sleep or form multiple nights of poor quality short duration sleep
Irritability, mood disturbances, decreased performance, slowed reaction time
178
REM rebound
Earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep after sleep deprivation
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Hypnosis
State in which a person appears to be in control of his or her normal functions but is in a highly suggestible state
180
Hypnotic induction
Seeks to relax the subject and increase the subject’s level of concentration
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Mediation
Quieting the mind for some purpose, whether spiritual, religious, or related to stress reduction
182
Depressants
Reduce nervous system activity, resulting in a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety
183
Alcohol
Increases the activity of GABA receptor (chloride channel that causes hyper-polarization of membrane)
184
Alcohol myopia
Inability to recognize consequences of actions
185
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
Deficiency of thiamine that is characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills & caused long term alcohol abuse
186
Barbiturates
Anxiety-reducing and sleep medications
Increase GABA activity
Type of depressant
187
Amphetamine
Increase release of dopamine, NE, & serotonin and decrease their reuptake
Feelings of euphoria, hypervigilance, anxiety, delusions of grandeur, paranoia
188
Cocaine
Decreases reuptake of dopamine, NE, & serotonin
Has vasoconstriction properties
189
Crack
Form of cocaine that can be smoked
190
Ectasy
Designer amphetamine
191
Opium
Bind to opioid receptors in PNS and CNS, decreasing reaction to pain
192
Opiate
Naturally occurring form of opium
193
Opioid
Semisynthetic derivative of opium
194
Heroin
When injected, will be metabolized to morphine
195
Hallucinogens
Mainly act on serotonin
Cause distortions of fantasy and reality, enhancement of sensory experiences, introspection
196
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
Active chemical in marijuana
Acts on cannabinol day, glycine, opioid receptors
197
Mesolithic reward pathway
HC → VTA → NAc & frontal cortex
Substantial nigra → striatum
198
Attention
Concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment
199
Selective attention
Focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli
Acts as a filter between sensory stimuli and our processing systems
200
Cocktail party phenomenon
Selective attention is more of a filter that allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in the background
201
Divided attention
Ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time
202
Phonology
Actual sound of language
203
Phonemes
Speech sounds
204
Categorical perception
Ability to make distinction between phonemes
205
Morphology
Structure of words
206
Morphemes
Building blocks of words that connote a particular meaning
207
Semantics
Association of meaning with a word
208
Syntax
How words are put together to form sentences
209
Pragmatics
Dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge
210
Prosody
Rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices
211
Errors of growth
When a child applies a grammatical rule in a situation when it does not apply
212
Nativist (biological) theory
Existence of some innate capacity for language
213
Transformational grammar
Differences in word order
Easily accomplished by young children
214
Sensitive period
Environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability
215
Critical period
Only time period in which a person can acquire a skill
216
Learning (behaviorist) theory
Language acquisition by operant conditioning, showing strong preference for phonemes in the language spoken by their parents
217
Social interactionist theory
Language acquisition is driven by the child’s desire to communicate or behave in a social manner
218
Whorfian hypothesis
Also called linguistic relativity hypothesis
Our perception of reality is determined by the content of language
219
Broca’s area
Controls the motor function of speech via connections with motor cortex
220
Wernicke’s area
Responsible for language comprehension
221
Arcuate fasciculus
Bundle of axons between Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas that allow for appropriate association between language comprehension and speech production
222
Aphasia
Deficit of language production or comprehension
223
Broca’s aphasia
Reduced or absent to produce spoken language
224
Wernicke’s aphasia
Loss of speech comprehension
225
Conduction aphasia
Speech production and comprehension are intact
Unable to repeat something that has been said
