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MCAT Review > Kaplan — Behavioral Sciences > Flashcards

Kaplan — Behavioral Sciences Flashcards

1
Q

Learning

A

Way in which we acquire behaviors

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2
Q

Stimulus

A

Anything to which an organism can respond, including sensory inputs

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3
Q

Habituation

A

Repeated exposure to the same stimulus can cause a decrease in response

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4
Q

Dishabituation

A

Recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred

Normally the result of a second stimulus

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5
Q

Associative learning

A

Creation of a pairing/association between two stimuli or between a behavior and a response

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6
Q

Classical conditioning

A

Type of associative learning that takes advantage of biological, instinctual responses

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7
Q

Unconditioned stimulus

A

Any stimulus that brings about such a reflexive response

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8
Q

Unconditioned response

A

Innate or reflexive response to a stimulus

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9
Q

Neutral stimulus

A

Stimulus that does not produce a reflexive response

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10
Q

Signaling stimulus

A

Neutral stimulus that has the potential to be used as a conditioning stimulus

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11
Q

Conditioned stimulus

A

Neutral stimulus that has been conditioned to produce the unconditioned response

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12
Q

Conditioned response

A

Unconditioned response that has now been trained to respond to a neutral stimulus

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13
Q

Extinction

A

When the organism has become habituated to the conditioned stimulus and no longer responds with the conditioned response

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14
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

When an extinct conditioned stimulus is presented again, a weak conditioned response can sometimes be exhibited

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15
Q

Generalization

A

Broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response

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16
Q

Discrimination

A

Organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli

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17
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Links voluntary behaviors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of those behaviors

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18
Q

Behaviorism

A

Theory that all behaviors are conditioned

B. F. Skinner

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19
Q

Reinforcement

A

Process of increasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behavior

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20
Q

Positive reinforcers

A

Adding a positive consequence or incentive to increase a behavior

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21
Q

Negative reinforcers

A

Removing an unpleasant thing to increase a behavior

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22
Q

Escape learning

A

Role of behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists

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23
Q

Avoidance learning

A

Meant to prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen

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24
Q

Primary reinforcer

A

Something that the organism responds to naturally

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25
Q

Conditioned reinforcer

A

Something that the organism has been trained to respond that they otherwise wouldn’t naturally

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26
Q

Secondary reinforcer

A

Conditioned reinforcer

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27
Q

Discriminative stimulus

A

A stimulus that has not been trained for the organism to respond to but has occurred incidentally

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28
Q

Punishment

A

Uses conditioning to reduce the occurrence of a behavior

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29
Q

Positive punishment

A

Adds an unpleasant consequence in response to a behavior to reduce that behavior

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30
Q

Negative punishment

A

Reduction of behavior when a stimulus is removed

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31
Q

Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule

A

Reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior

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32
Q

Continuous reinforcement

A

FR schedule where behavior is rewarded every time it is performed

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33
Q

Variable-ratio (VR) schedule

A

Reinforce a behavior after a variable number of performances of the behavior

Works the fastest for learning a new behavior and is also the most resistance to extinction

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34
Q

Fixed-interval (FI) schedule

A

Reinforce the first instance of behavior after a specified time period has elapsed

Works the slowest

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35
Q

Variable-interval (VI) schedule

A

Reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying interval of time

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36
Q

Shaping

A

Processing of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors to allow for the training of extremely complicated behaviors

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37
Q

Latent learning

A

Learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced

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38
Q

Problem solving

A

Method of learning that steps outside the standard behaviorist approach

Trial-and-error approach

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39
Q

Preparedness

A

Predisposition of animals to learn behaviors based on their natural abilities and instincts

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40
Q

Instinctive drift

A

Difficulty imposed by training animals to behave opposite their instinct

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41
Q

Observational learning

A

Processing of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others

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42
Q

Mirror neurons

A

Neurons located in the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex and fire both when an individual performs an action and when that individual observes someone else performing an action

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43
Q

Modeling

A

Showing individuals how to behave

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44
Q

Encoding

A

Process of putting new information into memory

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45
Q

Automatic processing

A

Information that is gained without effort

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46
Q

Controlled processing

A

Active memorization (e.g. studying)

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47
Q

Visual encoding

A

Visualizing to encode information

Weakest method

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48
Q

Acoustic encoding

A

Storing how it sounds

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49
Q

Semantic encoding

A

Putting information in a meaningful context

Strongest method

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50
Q

Self-reference effect

A

Our ability to recall information best when it’s in the context of our own lives

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51
Q

Maintenance rehearsal

A

Repetition of a piece of information to either keep it within working memory or store it in short-term and eventually long-term memory

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52
Q

Mnemonics

A

Acronyms or rhyming phrases that provide a vivid organization of the information we are trying to remember

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53
Q

Method of loci

A

Associating each item in the list with a location along a route through a building that has already been memorized

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54
Q

Peg-word system

A

Associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers (e.g. remembering you need to buy one egg by visualizing one egg being fried)

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55
Q

Chunking

A

Memory trick that involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning

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56
Q

Sensory memory

A

Shortest lasting memory and first reservoir

Consists of both iconic & echoic memory

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57
Q

Iconic memory

A

Visual memory

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58
Q

Echoic memory

A

Auditory memory

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59
Q

Whole-report

A

Asking participants in memory study to repeat everything that they remember in a set

Isn’t as accurate as partial-report

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60
Q

Partial-report

A

Asking participants to list a particular row or part of the stimulus presentation

Is more accurate

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61
Q

Short-term memory

A

Fades after 30 seconds

When we pay attention to some information that we are exposed to

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62
Q

7 +/- 2 rule

A

Short-term memory capacity

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63
Q

Location of short-term memory

A

Hippocampus

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64
Q

Working memory

A

Enables us to keep a few pieces of information in our consciousness simultaneously and manipulate that information

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65
Q

Location of working memory

A

Hippocampus primarily

Involvement of frontal and parietal lobes

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66
Q

Elaborative rehearsal

A

Association of information already stored in long-term memory

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67
Q

Implicit memory

A

Our skills and conditioned responses

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68
Q

Explicit memory

A

Memories that require conscious recall

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69
Q

Semantic memory

A

Type of explicit memory that consists of the facts we know

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70
Q

Episodic memory

A

Type of explicit memory that includes our experiences

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71
Q

Retrieval

A

Process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained

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72
Q

Recall

A

Retrieval and statement of previously learned information

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73
Q

Recognition

A

Process of merely identifying a piece of information that was previously learned

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74
Q

Relearning

A

Another way of demonstrating that information has been stored in long-term memory

Previously learned memories are learned faster

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75
Q

Spacing effect

A

Longer amount of time between sessions of re-learning, greater the retention of information later on

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76
Q

Semantic network

A

The way that concepts are linked on the brain based on similar meaning

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77
Q

Spreading activation

A

When one node of our semantic network is activated, other linked concepts around it are also unconsciously activated

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78
Q

Priming

A

Recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory

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79
Q

Context effects

A

Memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place

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80
Q

State-dependent memory

A

Being the same mental state as when learning information aids recall

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81
Q

Serial position effect

A

Higher recall for the first and last pieces of information in a list

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82
Q

Primacy effect

A

Being more able to remember the first items on a list

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83
Q

Regency effect

A

Being more able to remember the second items on a list

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84
Q

Alzheimer’s disease

A

Degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of Ach neurons that link to the hippocampus

Marked by progressive dementia and memory loss with atrophy of the brain

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85
Q

Microscopic findings of Alzheimer’s

A

Neurofibrillary tangles and beta-amyloid plaques

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86
Q

Sundowning

A

Increase in dysfunction in the late afternoon and evening

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87
Q

Korsakoff’s syndrome

A

Form of memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain

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88
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A

Loss of previously formed memories

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89
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

Inability to form new memories

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90
Q

Cofabulation

A

Process of creating vivid but fabricated memories

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91
Q

Agnosia

A

Ability of recognize objects, peoples, or sounds (normally only one of the three)

92
Q

Interference

A

Retrieval error caused by the existence of other information

93
Q

Proactive interference

A

Old information interferes with new learning

94
Q

Retroactive interference

A

New information causes forgetting of old information

95
Q

Prospective memory

A

Remembering to perform a task in the future

Remains intact when event-based

96
Q

Misinformation effect

A

When being exposed to misinformation, people will be caused to misremember

97
Q

Source-monitoring error

A

Involves confusion between semantic and episodic memory

A person remembers the details of an event but confuses the context under which those details were gained

98
Q

Neuroplasticity

A

Neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli as our brain develops

99
Q

Synaptic pruning

A

Weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered, increasing the efficiency of ours brains’ ability to process information

100
Q

Long-term potentiation

A

As a stimulus is repeated, the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing NTs and receptor sites on the other side of the synapse increase

101
Q

Cognition

A

How our brains process and react to the information overload presented us by the world

102
Q

Dual-coding theory

A

Both verbal association & visual images are used to process and store information

Builds redundancy and increases the chance that information can retrieved and used effectively when cued

103
Q

Information processing model

A
  • Thinking requires sensation, encoding, & storage of stimuli
  • Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain
  • Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems
  • Dependent on cognitive level, context of problem, & complexity of problem
104
Q

Situational modification

A

One situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems

105
Q

Cognitive development

A

Development of one’s ability to think and solve the problems across the lifespan

106
Q

Jean Piget

A

Divided cognitive development into 4 stages

  1. Sensorimotor
  2. Preoperational
  3. Concrete operational
  4. Formal operational
107
Q

Schema

A

Organized patterns of behavior and thought

108
Q

Adaptation

A

How new information is processed

Consists of assimilation and accommodation

109
Q

Assimilation

A

Processing of classifying new information into existing schemata

110
Q

Accommodation

A

Process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass this new information

111
Q

Sensorimotor stage

A

From birth to 2 years of age

Learns to manipulate their environment in order to meet physical needs

112
Q

Primary circular reactions

A

Repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance

Body movement is found soothing

113
Q

Secondary circular reactions

A

When manipulation is focused on something outside the body

Body movement gets response from environment

114
Q

Object permanence

A

Understanding that objects continue to exist when out of view

115
Q

Representational thought

A

Child has begun to create mental representations of external objects and events

116
Q

Preoperational stage

A

From 2-7 years

Characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, & centration

117
Q

Symbolic thinking

A

Ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination

118
Q

Egocentrism

A

Inability to imagine what another person may think or feel

119
Q

Centration

A

Tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon or inability to understand the concept of conservation

120
Q

Conservation

A

Focusing on the number rather than actual quantity

121
Q

Concrete operational stage

A

From 7-11 years of age

Understand conservation and consider the perspectives of others and engage in logical thought as long as they are working with concrete objects or directly available information

122
Q

Formal operational stage

A

Starts at 11 years of age

Marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas

123
Q

Lee Vygotsky

A

Said that the engine driving cognitive development is the child’s internalization of his/her culture

124
Q

Fluid intelligence

A

Consists of problem-solving skills

125
Q

Crystallized intelligence

A

Use of learned skills and knowledge

126
Q

Delirium

A

Rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical (non-psychological causes

Can be the result of pH disturbances, low blood sugar, infection, drug reaction, alcohol withdrawal, pain

127
Q

Mental set

A

Tendency to approach similar problems in the same way

128
Q

Functional fixedness

A

The inability to consider how to use an object in a non-traditional manner

129
Q

Trial-and-error

A

Less sophisticated type of problem solving in which various solution are tried until one is found that seems to work

130
Q

Algorithm

A

Formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem

131
Q

Deductive reasoning

A

Starts from a set of general rules and draws a conclusions from the information given

Example: logic puzzle

132
Q

Inductive reasoning

A

Create a theory via generalizations

133
Q

Heuristics

A

Simplified principles used to make decisions

Colloquially called rules of thumb

134
Q

Availability heuristic

A

When we try to decide how likely something is

135
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

Categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the cateogry

136
Q

Base rate fallacy

A

Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information

137
Q

Discrimination principle

A

Evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work

138
Q

Confirmation bias

A

Tendency to focus on information that fits an individual’s beliefs while rejecting information that goes against them

139
Q

Overconfidence

A

Tendency to erroneously interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible

140
Q

Belief perseverance

A

Inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary

141
Q

Intuition

A

Ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence

142
Q

Recognition-primed decision model

A

Brain is sorting through a wide variety of information to match a pattern

143
Q

Emotion

A

Subjective experience of a person in a certain situation

144
Q

Multiple intelligences

A

There exists 7 kinds of intelligence

Western culture values linguistic and logical-mathematical

145
Q

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

A

Performance on different cognitive tasks is positively correlated indicating an underlying factor is playing a role

146
Q

Consciousness

A

One’s level of awareness of both the world and one’s own existence within the world

147
Q

Alertness

A

State of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think

148
Q

Neurological circuit for alertness

A

Fibers from the prefrontal cortex communicate with the reticular formation (neural structure in brain stem)

149
Q

Electroencephalography (EEG)

A

Records an average of electrical patterns within different portions of the brain

150
Q

Beta waves

A

High frequency waves that occur when the person is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration

151
Q

Alpha waves

A

Awake but relaxes with our eyes closed and are somewhat slower than beta waves

152
Q

Stage 1 of sleep

A

Characterized by theta waves

153
Q

Theta waves

A

Irregular waveforms with slower frequencies and higher voltages

154
Q

Stage 2 of sleep

A

Characterized by sleep spindles and K complexes

155
Q

Stages 3 and 4 of sleep

A

Called slow wave sleep

Characterized by delta waves (low-frequency, high-voltage sleep waves)

Associated with cognitive recovery and memory consolidation

156
Q

Non-rapid eye movement sleep

A

Stages 1-4

157
Q

Rapid eye movement sleep

A

Arousal levels are that of wakefulness but the muscles are paralyzed

158
Q

Sleep cycle

A

Complete progression through the sleep stages

159
Q

Circadian rhythms

A

Regulates daily cycle of waking and sleeping

160
Q

Melatonin

A

Secreted by pineal gland

Induces sleepiness due to decreasing light

161
Q

Cortisol

A

Contributes to wakefulness

162
Q

Activation-synthesis theory

A

Caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry and the subsequent stitching together of unrelated information

163
Q

Problem-solving dream theory

A

Way to solve problems while you are sleeping

164
Q

Cognitive process dream theory

A

Merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness

165
Q

Dyssomnia

A

Disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep or avoid sleep

166
Q

Parasomnia

A

Abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep

167
Q

Insomnia

A

Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep

168
Q

Narcolepsy

A

Condition characterized by lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep

169
Q

Cataplexy

A

Loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours

170
Q

Sleep paralysis

A

Sensation of being unable to move despite being awake

171
Q

Hypnagogic or hypnopompic hallucinations

A

Hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening

172
Q

Sleep apnea

A

Inability to breathe during sleep

173
Q

Obstructive sleep apnea

A

A physical blockage in the pharynx or trachea prevents airflow

174
Q

Central sleep apnea

A

Brain fails to send signals to the diaphragm to breathe

175
Q

Night terrors

A

Periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow-wave sleep

176
Q

Sleepwalking

A

Movement during sleep

177
Q

Sleep deprivation

A

Result from as little as one night without sleep or form multiple nights of poor quality short duration sleep

Irritability, mood disturbances, decreased performance, slowed reaction time

178
Q

REM rebound

A

Earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep after sleep deprivation

179
Q

Hypnosis

A

State in which a person appears to be in control of his or her normal functions but is in a highly suggestible state

180
Q

Hypnotic induction

A

Seeks to relax the subject and increase the subject’s level of concentration

181
Q

Mediation

A

Quieting the mind for some purpose, whether spiritual, religious, or related to stress reduction

182
Q

Depressants

A

Reduce nervous system activity, resulting in a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety

183
Q

Alcohol

A

Increases the activity of GABA receptor (chloride channel that causes hyper-polarization of membrane)

184
Q

Alcohol myopia

A

Inability to recognize consequences of actions

185
Q

Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome

A

Deficiency of thiamine that is characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills & caused long term alcohol abuse

186
Q

Barbiturates

A

Anxiety-reducing and sleep medications

Increase GABA activity

Type of depressant

187
Q

Amphetamine

A

Increase release of dopamine, NE, & serotonin and decrease their reuptake

Feelings of euphoria, hypervigilance, anxiety, delusions of grandeur, paranoia

188
Q

Cocaine

A

Decreases reuptake of dopamine, NE, & serotonin

Has vasoconstriction properties

189
Q

Crack

A

Form of cocaine that can be smoked

190
Q

Ectasy

A

Designer amphetamine

191
Q

Opium

A

Bind to opioid receptors in PNS and CNS, decreasing reaction to pain

192
Q

Opiate

A

Naturally occurring form of opium

193
Q

Opioid

A

Semisynthetic derivative of opium

194
Q

Heroin

A

When injected, will be metabolized to morphine

195
Q

Hallucinogens

A

Mainly act on serotonin

Cause distortions of fantasy and reality, enhancement of sensory experiences, introspection

196
Q

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)

A

Active chemical in marijuana

Acts on cannabinol day, glycine, opioid receptors

197
Q

Mesolithic reward pathway

A

HC → VTA → NAc & frontal cortex

Substantial nigra → striatum

198
Q

Attention

A

Concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment

199
Q

Selective attention

A

Focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli

Acts as a filter between sensory stimuli and our processing systems

200
Q

Cocktail party phenomenon

A

Selective attention is more of a filter that allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in the background

201
Q

Divided attention

A

Ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time

202
Q

Phonology

A

Actual sound of language

203
Q

Phonemes

A

Speech sounds

204
Q

Categorical perception

A

Ability to make distinction between phonemes

205
Q

Morphology

A

Structure of words

206
Q

Morphemes

A

Building blocks of words that connote a particular meaning

207
Q

Semantics

A

Association of meaning with a word

208
Q

Syntax

A

How words are put together to form sentences

209
Q

Pragmatics

A

Dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge

210
Q

Prosody

A

Rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices

211
Q

Errors of growth

A

When a child applies a grammatical rule in a situation when it does not apply

212
Q

Nativist (biological) theory

A

Existence of some innate capacity for language

213
Q

Transformational grammar

A

Differences in word order

Easily accomplished by young children

214
Q

Sensitive period

A

Environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability

215
Q

Critical period

A

Only time period in which a person can acquire a skill

216
Q

Learning (behaviorist) theory

A

Language acquisition by operant conditioning, showing strong preference for phonemes in the language spoken by their parents

217
Q

Social interactionist theory

A

Language acquisition is driven by the child’s desire to communicate or behave in a social manner

218
Q

Whorfian hypothesis

A

Also called linguistic relativity hypothesis

Our perception of reality is determined by the content of language

219
Q

Broca’s area

A

Controls the motor function of speech via connections with motor cortex

220
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

Responsible for language comprehension

221
Q

Arcuate fasciculus

A

Bundle of axons between Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas that allow for appropriate association between language comprehension and speech production

222
Q

Aphasia

A

Deficit of language production or comprehension

223
Q

Broca’s aphasia

A

Reduced or absent to produce spoken language

224
Q

Wernicke’s aphasia

A

Loss of speech comprehension

225
Q

Conduction aphasia

A

Speech production and comprehension are intact

Unable to repeat something that has been said

MCAT Review (7 decks)

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