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MCAT Review > Kaplan — General Chemistry > Flashcards

Kaplan — General Chemistry Flashcards

1
Q

Molecules

A

Combination of elements via covalent bonding

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2
Q

Chemical bonds

A

Strong attractive forces formed via the interaction of valence electrons of the combining atoms

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3
Q

Octet rule

A

States that an atom tends to bond with other atoms so that is has 8 electrons in its outermost shell

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4
Q

Exceptions to octet rule (3)

A
  1. Incomplete octet — stable with fewer than 8 electrons → hydrogen, helium, lithium, beryllium, boron
  2. Expanded octet — element in period 3 or greater → phosphorous, sulfur, chlorine
  3. Odd numbers of electrons — molecules that cannot distribute to give 8 to each atom → nitric oxide
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5
Q

Ionic bonding

A

One or more electrons from an atom with a low ionization energy (e.g. metal) are transferred to an atom with a high electron affinity (e.g. non-metal) & the resulting electrostatic attraction between opposite charges is what holds the ions together

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6
Q

Covalent bonding

A

Electron pair is shared between two atoms

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7
Q

Polar covalent bonding

A

Sharing of the electron pair is unequal

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8
Q

Non-polar covalent bonding

A

Sharing of the electron pair is equal

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9
Q

Coordinate covalent

A

Both of the shared electrons are contributed by only one of the two atoms

When a lone pair of one atom attacked another atom with an unhybridized p-orbital to form a bond

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10
Q

Cation

A

Positively charged atom

Atom that loses the electron

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11
Q

Anion

A

Negatively charged atom

Atom that gains the electrons

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12
Q

Crystalline lattice

A

Compound form of ionic constituents consisting of repeating positive and negative ions

Attractive forces between oppositely charged are maximized, repulsive forces between ions of like charge are minimized

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13
Q

Bond order

A

Number of shared electron pairs shared between two atoms

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14
Q

Bond length

A

Average distance between the two nuclei of atoms in a bond

Single > double > triple

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15
Q

Bond energy

A

Energy required to break a bond by separating its components into their isolated, gaseous atomic states

Triple > double > single

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16
Q

Polarity

A

When two atoms have a relative difference in electronegativity

Atom with high electronegativity have a larger share of electron density

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17
Q

Dipole moment

A

Vector quantity given by equation p = qd, where p is dipole moment, q is magnitude fo charge, d is displacement vector separating the two charges

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18
Q

Units of dipole moment

A

Debye units (coulomb-meters)

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19
Q

Bonding electrons

A

Electrons involved in a covalent bond & located in valence shell

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20
Q

Non-bonding electrons

A

Electrons located in valence shell & not involved in covalent bonds

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21
Q

Lewis structure

A

System of notation developed to keep track of bonded and non-bonded electron pairs

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22
Q

Formal charge

A

Formal charge = number of electrons in atom’s valence shell — number of non-bonding electrons — half of the number of bonding electrons

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23
Q

How to make a Lewis structure

A

(1) Draw backbone of the compound
(2) Count all the valence electrons of the atoms
(3) Draw single bonds between central atoms and atoms surrounding it
(4) Complete the octets of all surrounding atoms
(5) Complete the octet of the central atom next, adjusting the single bonds to double or triple bonds

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24
Q

Resonance structures (Lewis)

A

All possible resonance structures connected by a double-headed arrow

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25
Q

Resonance hybrid

A

Actual structure of compound formed by relative combination of all resonance structures

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26
Q

Stability of different resonance structures

A
  • Small or no formal charges
  • Less separation between opposite charges
  • Negative charges on electronegative atoms
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27
Q

Number of electrons for hydrogen

A

Stable with 2

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28
Q

Number of electrons for helium

A

Stable with 2

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29
Q

Number of electrons for lithium

A

Stable with 2

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30
Q

Number of electrons for beryllium

A

Stable with 4

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31
Q

Number of electrons for boron

A

Stable with 6

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32
Q

Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR)

A

Predicts the molecular geometry of covalently bonded molecules

States that the 3-D arrangement of atoms surrounding a central atom is determined by the repulsions between bonding and non-bonding electrons in the valence shell of the central atom

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33
Q

Regions of electron density

A

Lone pairs and bonds

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34
Q

2 regions of electron density

A

Linear

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35
Q

3 regions of electron density

A

Trigonal planar

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36
Q

4 regions of electron density

A

Tetrahedral

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37
Q

5 regions of electron density

A

Trigonal bipyramidal

38
Q

6 regions of electron density

A

Octahedral

39
Q

Electron geometry

A

Spatial arrangement of all pairs of electrons around the central atom, including both the bonding and the lone pairs

40
Q

Molecular geometry

A

Spatial arrangement of only the bonding pairs of electrons

41
Q

Coordination number

A

Number of atoms that surround and are bonded to a central atom

42
Q

Ideal bond angle

A

Determined by the VSEPR model but can be altered by repulsion from non bonding pairs

43
Q

Molecular orbital

A

Overlap between two atomic orbitals

44
Q

Bonding orbital

A

Signs of 2 atomic orbitals are the same

45
Q

Anti-bonding orbital

A

Signs of 2 atomic orbitals are different

46
Q

Sigma bond

A

Head to head overlap of two orbitals that allows for free rotation

47
Q

Pi bond

A

Caused by parallel electron cloud densities

Do not allow free rotation

48
Q

London dispersion forces

A

Shifting polarities that cause transient bonds

49
Q

Dipole-dipole interactions

A

Occur between the oppositely charged ends of polar molecules

50
Q

Hydrogen bonds

A

Specialized subset of dipole-dipole interactions between a hydrogen bonded to NOF and a NOF atom

51
Q

Compound

A

Pure substance composed of two or more electrons in a fixed proportion

52
Q

Molecule

A

Combination of two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds

Can be the same elements or different elements

53
Q

Formula unit

A

Empirical formula of the compound

Subunit of an ionic compound

54
Q

Formula weight

A

Weight of formula unit

55
Q

Molecular weight

A

Sum of atomic weights of all the atoms in a molecule and is in units of atomic mass units (amu) per molecule

56
Q

Mole

A

Quantity of any substance equal to the number of particles found in 12 grams of carbon-12

57
Q

Avogadro’s number (N_A)

A

6.022 x 10^23 mol^(-1)

58
Q

Molar mass

A

Mass of one mole of a compound

Expressed in g/mol

59
Q

Equivalent weight

A

How many moles of the thing we are interested in (protons, hydroxide ions, electrons, ions) will one mole of a given compound produce?

Example: when talking about hydrogen ions, 1 N HCl is 1 M HCl and 1 N H2CO3 is 0.5 M H2CO3

60
Q

Gram equivalent weight

A

Equals molar mass / n, where n is number of particles of interest

61
Q

Number of equivalents

A

Mass of compound / gram equivalent weight

62
Q

Normality

A

Molarity times n

63
Q

Law of constant composition

A

Any pure sample of a given compound will contain the same elements in identical mass ratio

64
Q

Empirical formula

A

Simplest whole-number ratio of elements

65
Q

Molecular formula

A

Exact number of atoms of each element in the compound and is a multiple of the empirical formula

66
Q

Percent composition

A

Mass of element in the formula / molar mass in percentage

67
Q

Combination reaction

A

Two or more reactions forming one product

68
Q

Decomposition reaction

A

Single reactant breaks down into two or more productions

69
Q

Combustion reaction

A

Hydrocarbon + oxidant → carbon dioxide + water

70
Q

Single-displacement reaction

A

When an atom or ion in a compound is replaced by an atom or ion of another element

71
Q

Double-displacement reaction

A

Two different compounds swap places with each other to form two new compounds

72
Q

Neutralization reaction

A

Acid + base → salt + water

73
Q

Stoichiometric coefficients

A

Indicate the relative number of moles of a given species involved in the reaction

74
Q

Limiting reactant

A

Reactant that limits the amount of product that can be formed in the reaction

75
Q

Excess reactants

A

Reactants that remain after all the limiting reagent is used

76
Q

Theoretical yield

A

Maximum amount of product that can be generated as predicted from the balanced equation

77
Q

Actual yield

A

Amount of product one actually obtains during the reaction

78
Q

Percent yield

A

Actual yield / theoretical yield in percentage form

79
Q

Different ions’ charges in nomenclature

A

Denoted by Roman numerals following the ion’s name or change suffix to -ous or -ic for less and greater charge respectively

Example: iron(II) vs. iron(III) & ferrous vs. ferric

80
Q

Mono-atomic anion names

A

Dropping the ending of the name of the element and adding -ide

81
Q

Oxyanion names

A

One with less oxygen ends in -ite

One with more oxygen ends in -ate

If there are more than 2 oxyanions in a series, the one with less is called hypo- and the one with more is per-

82
Q

Oxyanion names with hydrogen

A

Add hydrogen or dihydrogen in front of the anion’s name

Can add bi- instead of hydrogen

83
Q

Ammonium

A

NH4^+

84
Q

Acetate

A

C2H3O2^-

85
Q

Cyanide

A

CN^-

86
Q

Permanganate

A

MnO4^-

87
Q

Thiocyanate

A

SCN^-

88
Q

Chromate

A

CrO4^2-

89
Q

Dichromate

A

Cr2O7^2-

90
Q

Borate

A

BO3^3-

91
Q

Oxidation states

A

Different charges that elements can adopt

92
Q

Electrolytes

A

Solutes that enable solutions to carry currents

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