Key Points Flashcards
(119 cards)
1
Q
Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in
A
Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure.
2
Q
The spread of maize cultivation from present-day Mexico northward into the present-
day American Southwest and beyond supported
A
economic development, settlement, advanced irrigation, and social diversification among societies.
3
Q
Societies responded to the aridity of the Great Basin and the grasslands of the western Great Plains by
A
developing largely mobile lifestyles.
4
Q
In the Northeast, the Mississippi River Valley, and along the Atlantic seaboard some societies developed
A
mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies that favored the development of permanent villages.
5
Q
Societies in the Northwest and present-day California supported themselves by
A
hunting and gathering, and in some areas developed settled communities supported by the vast resources of the ocean.
6
Q
European expansion into the Western Hemisphere generated intense
A
European expansion into the Western Hemisphere generated intense social, religious, political, and economic competition and changes within European societies.
7
Q
European nations’ efforts
to explore and conquer the New World stemmed from
A
a search for new sources of wealth, economic and military competition, and a desire to spread Christianity.
8
Q
The Columbian Exchange
A
brought new crops to
Europe from the Americas, stimulating European population growth, and
new sources of mineral wealth, which facilitated the European shift from feudalism to capitalism.
9
Q
Improvements in maritime technology and more organized methods for conducting international trade, such as joint-stock companies
A
helped drive changes to economies in Europe and the Americas.
10
Q
Spanish exploration and conquest of the Americas were accompanied and furthered by
A
widespread deadly epidemics that devastated native populations and by the introduction of crops and animals not found in the Americas.
11
Q
the encomienda system,
A
Spanish colonial economies marshaled Native American labor to support plantation- based agriculture and extract precious metals and other resources.
12
Q
European traders partnered with some West African groups who
A
practiced slavery to forcibly extract slave
labor for the Americas. The Spanish imported enslaved Africans to labor in plantation agriculture and mining.
13
Q
The Spanish developed
a caste system that
A
incorporated, and carefully defined the status of,
the diverse population of Europeans, Africans, and Native Americans in their empire.
14
Q
their interactions, Europeans and Native Americans asserted divergent worldviews regarding issues such as
A
religion, gender roles, family, land use, and power.
15
Q
between Europeans and Native Americans often defined the early years of interaction and trade as
each group sought to make sense of the other. Over
time, Europeans and Native Americans adopted some useful aspects of each other’s culture.
A
Mutual misunderstandings
16
Q
As European encroachments on Native Americans’ lands and demands on their
labor increased,
A
native peoples sought to defend and maintain their political sovereignty, economic prosperity, religious beliefs, and concepts of gender relations through diplomatic negotiations and military resistance.
17
Q
Extended contact with Native Americans and Africans fostered a debate among European religious and political leaders about how
A
non-Europeans should be treated, as well as evolving religious, cultural, and
racial justifications for the subjugation of Africans and Native Americans.
18
Q
Europeans developed a variety of colonization and migration patterns, influenced by
A
different imperial goals, cultures, and the varied North American environments where they settled, and they competed with each other and American Indians for resources.
19
Q
Spanish efforts to
A
extract wealth from the land led them to develop institutions based on subjugating native populations, converting them to Christianity, and incorporating them, along with enslaved and free Africans, into the Spanish colonial society.
20
Q
French and Dutch colonial efforts
A
involved relatively
few Europeans and relied
on trade alliances and intermarriage with American Indians to build economic and diplomatic relationships and acquire furs and other products for export to Europe.
21
Q
English colonization efforts
A
attracted a comparatively large number of male and female British migrants,
as well as other European migrants, all of whom
sought social mobility, economic prosperity, religious freedom, and improved living conditions. These colonists focused on agriculture and settled on land taken from Native Americans, from whom they lived separately.
22
Q
In the 17th century,
A
early British colonies developed along the Atlantic coast, with regional differences that reflected various environmental, economic, cultural, and demographic factors.
23
Q
The Chesapeake and
North Carolina colonies
grew prosperous exporting
A
tobacco—a labor-intensive product initially cultivated by white, mostly male indentured servants and later by enslaved Africans.
24
Q
The New England colonies,
A
initially settled by Puritans, developed around small towns with family farms and achieved a thriving mixed economy of agriculture and commerce.
25
The middle colonies
The middle colonies supported a flourishing export economy based on cereal crops and attracted a broad range of European migrants, leading to societies with greater cultural, ethnic, and religious diversity and tolerance.
26
The colonies of the southern Atlantic coast and the British West Indies
used long growing seasons to develop plantation economies based on exporting staple crops. They depended on the labor of enslaved Africans, who often constituted the majority of the population in these areas and developed their own forms of cultural and religious autonomy.
27
Distance and Britain’s initially lax attention led to the colonies creating
S elf-governing institutions that were unusually democratic for the era. The New England colonies based power in participatory town meetings, which in turn elected members to their colonial legislatures;
in the southern colonies, elite planters exercised local authority and also dominated the elected assemblies.
28
Competition over resources between European rivals and American Indians encouraged
industry and trade and led to conflict in the Americas.
29
An Atlantic economy
developed in which goods, as well as enslaved Africans and American Indians,
were exchanged between Europe, Africa, and the Americas through extensive trade networks. European colonial economies focused on acquiring, producing, and exporting commodities that were valued in Europe and gaining new sources of labor.
30
Continuing trade with Europeans
increased
the flow of goods in and
out of American Indian communities, stimulating cultural and economic changes and spreading epidemic diseases that caused radical demographic shifts.
31
Interactions between European rivals and American Indian populations fostered both
accommodation and conflict. French, Dutch, British, and Spanish colonies allied with and armed American Indian groups, who frequently sought alliances with Europeans against other American Indian groups.
32
The goals and interests
| of European leaders and colonists at times diverged, leading to a
growing mistrust on both sides of the Atlantic. Colonists, especially in British North America, expressed dissatisfaction over issues including territorial settlements, frontier defense, self-rule, and trade. The
33
British conflicts with American Indians over land, resources, and political boundaries led to
military confrontations, such as Metacom’s War (King Philip’s War) in New England.
34
American Indian resistance to Spanish colonizing efforts in North America, particularly after the Pueblo Revolt, led
to
Spanish accommodation of some aspects of American Indian culture in the Southwest.
35
Transatlantic commercial, religious, philosophical, and political exchanges led residents of the British colonies
o evolve in their political and cultural attitudes as they became increasingly tied to Britain and one another. Anybody
36
The presence of different European religious and ethnic groups contributed to a significant degree of
pluralism and intellectual exchange, which were later enhanced
by the first Great Awakening and the spread of European Enlightenment ideas.
37
The British colonies experienced a gradual Anglicization over time, developing
autonomous political communities based on English models with influence from intercolonial commercial ties, the emergence of a trans-Atlantic print culture, and the spread of Protestant evangelicalism.
38
The British government increasingly attempted to incorporate its North American colonies into a
coherent, hierarchical, and imperial structure in order to pursue mercantilist economic aims, but conflicts with colonists and American Indians led to erratic enforcement of imperial policies.
39
Colonists’ resistance to imperial control drew on
| local experiences
of self- government, evolving ideas of liberty, the political thought
of the Enlightenment, greater religious independence and diversity, and an ideology critical of perceived corruption in the imperial system.
40
Like other European empires in the Americas that participated in the Atlantic slave trade, the English colonies developed
a system of slavery that reflected the specific economic, demographic, and geographic characteristics of those colonies.
41
All the British colonies participated to varying degrees in the Atlantic slave trade due to the
abundance of land and a growing European demand for colonial goods, as well as a shortage of indentured servants. Small New England farms used relatively few enslaved laborers, all port cities held significant minorities of enslaved people, and the emerging plantation systems of the Chesapeake and the southern Atlantic coast had large numbers of enslaved workers, while the great majority of enslaved Africans were sent to the West Indies.
42
As chattel slavery became the dominant labor system in many southern colonies, new laws created a
strict racial system that prohibited interracial relationships and defined the descendants of African American mothers as black and enslaved in perpetuity.
43
.
| C. Africans developed
both overt and covert means to resist
| the dehumanizing aspects of slavery and maintain their family and gender systems, culture, and religion.
44
British attempts to assert tighter control over its North American colonies and the colonial resolve to pursue self-government led to
a colonial independence movement and the Revolutionary War.
45
The competition among the British, French, and American Indians for economic and political advantage in North America culminated in
the Seven Years’ War (the French and Indian War), in which Britain defeated France and allied American Indians.
46
Colonial rivalry intensified between Britain and France in the mid-18th century, as
the growing population of the British colonies expanded into the interior of North America, threatening French– Indian trade networks and American Indian autonomy.
47
Britain achieved a major expansion of its territorial holdings by
defeating the French, but at tremendous expense, setting the stage for imperial efforts to raise revenue and consolidate control over the colonies.
48
After the British victory, imperial officials’ attempts to prevent colonists from moving westward generated
colonial opposition, while native groups sought to both continue trading with Europeans and resist the encroachments of colonists on tribal lands.
49
The desire of many colonists to assert ideals of self-government in the face of renewed British imperial efforts led to
a colonial independence movement and war with Britain.
50
The imperial struggles of the mid-18th century, as well as new British efforts to collect taxes without direct colonial representation or consent and to assert imperial authority
in the colonies, began to
unite the colonists against perceived and real constraints on their economic activities and political rights.
51
Colonial leaders based their calls for resistance to Britain on a
arguments about the rights of British subjects, the rights of the individual, local traditions of self-rule, and the ideas of the Enlightenment.
52
The effort for American independence was energized by
colonial leaders such as Benjamin Franklin, as well as by popular movements that included the political activism of laborers, artisans, and women.
53
In the face of economic shortages and the British military occupation of some regions, men and women
mobilized in large numbers
| to provide financial and material support to the Patriot movement.
54
Despite considerable loyalist opposition, as well as
| Great Britain’s apparently overwhelming military and financial advantages, the Patriot cause
succeeded because of the actions of colonial militias and the Continental Army, George Washington’s military leadership, the colonists’ ideological commitment and resilience, and assistance sent by European allies.
55
The ideals that inspired the revolutionary cause reflected
new beliefs about politics, religion, and society that had been developing over the course of the 18th century.
56
Enlightenment ideas and philosophy inspired many American political thinkers to emphasize
individual talent over hereditary privilege, while religion strengthened Americans’ view of themselves as a people blessed with liberty.
57
The colonists’ belief in
the superiority of republican forms of government based on the natural rights of the people found expression in Thomas Paine’s Common Sense and the Declaration of Independence. The ideas in these documents resonated throughout American history, shaping Americans’ understanding of the ideals on which the nation was based.
58
During and after the American Revolution, an increased awareness of inequalities in society motivated
some individuals and groups to call for the abolition of slavery and greater political democracy in the new state and national governments.
Concept Outline
59
In response to women’s participation in the American Revolution, Enlightenment ideas, and women’s appeals for expanded roles,
an ideal of “republican motherhood” gained popularity. It called on women to teach republican values within the family
and granted women a new importance in American political culture.
60
The American Revolution
| and the ideals set forth in the Declaration of Independence
reverberated in France,
| Haiti, and Latin America, inspiring future independence movements.
61
After declaring independence, American political leaders created
new constitutions and declarations of rights that articulated the role of the state and federal governments while protecting individual liberties and limiting both centralized power and excessive popular influence.
62
Many new state constitutions placed power in the hands
| of
the legislative branch
| and maintained property qualifications for voting and citizenship.
63
The Articles of Confederation unified the newly independent states, creating a central government with
limited power. After the Revolution, difficulties over international trade, finances, interstate commerce, foreign relations, and internal unrest led to
calls for a stronger central government.
64
Delegates from the
| states participated in a Constitutional Convention and through negotiation, collaboration, and compromise proposed a
constitution that created a limited but dynamic central government embodying federalism and providing for a separation of powers between its three branches.
65
The Constitutional Convention compromised
over the representation of slave states in Congress
and the role of the federal government in regulating both slavery and the slave trade, allowing the prohibition of the international slave trade after 1808.
66
In the debate over ratifying the Constitution,
Anti-Federalists opposing ratification battled with Federalists, whose principles were articulated
in the Federalist Papers (primarily written by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison). Federalists ensured the ratification of the Constitution by promising the addition of a Bill of Rights that enumerated individual rights and explicitly restricted the powers of the federal government.
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67
New forms of national culture and political institutions developed in the United States alongside continued
regional variations and differences over economic, political, social, and foreign policy issues.
68
During the presidential administrations of George Washington and John Adams,
political leaders created institutions and precedents that put the principles of the Constitution into practice.
69
Political leaders in the 1790s took a variety of positions on issues such
as
the relationship between the national government and the states, economic policy, foreign policy,
and the balance between liberty and order. This led
to the formation of political parties—most significantly the Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, and the Democratic-Republican Party, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison.
70
The expansion of slavery
| in the deep South and adjacent western lands and rising antislavery sentiment began to create
distinctive regional attitudes toward the institution.
71
Ideas about national identity increasingly found expression in
works of art, literature, and architecture.
72
Migration within North America and competition over resources, boundaries, and trade
intensified conflicts among peoples and nations.
73
In the decades after American independence, interactions among different groups resulted in
competition for resources, shifting alliances, and cultural blending.
74
Various American Indian groups repeatedly
evaluated and adjusted their alliances with Europeans, other tribes, and the U.S., seeking to limit migration of white settlers and maintain control of tribal lands and natural resources. British alliances with American Indians contributed to tensions between the U.S. and Britain.
75
As increasing numbers of migrants from North America and other parts of the world continued to move westward,
frontier cultures that had emerged in the colonial period continued to grow, fueling social, political, and ethnic tensions.
76
As settlers moved westward during the 1780s, Congress enacted the
Northwest Ordinance for admitting
new states; the ordinance promoted public education, the protection of private property, and a ban on slavery in the Northwest Territory.
77
An ambiguous relationship between the federal government and American Indian tribes contributed to
problems regarding treaties and American Indian legal claims relating to the seizure of their lands.
78
The Spanish, supported by the bonded labor of the local American Indians, expanded
their mission settlements into California; these provided opportunities for social mobility among soldiers and led to new cultural blending.
79
The continued presence of European powers in North America challenged
the United States to find ways to safeguard its borders, maintain neutral trading rights, and promote its economic interests.
80
The United States government forged
diplomatic initiatives aimed at dealing with the continued British and Spanish presence in North America, as U.S. settlers migrated beyond the Appalachians and sought free navigation of the Mississippi River.
81
War between France and Britain resulting from the French Revolution presented challenges to the United States over i
issues of free trade and foreign policy
| and fostered political disagreement.
82
George Washington’s Farewell Address encouraged
national unity, as he cautioned
| against political factions and warned about the danger of permanent foreign alliances.
83
The United States began to develop
a modern democracy and celebrated a new national culture, while Americans sought to define the nation’s democratic ideals and change their society and institutions to match them.
84
The nation’s transition to a more participatory democracy was achieved by
expanding suffrage from a system based on property ownership to one based on voting by all adult white men, and it was accompanied by the growth of political parties.
85
In the early 1800s, national political parties continued to
debate issues such as the tariff, powers of the federal government, and relations with European powers.
86
Supreme Court decisions established
the primacy of the judiciary in determining the meaning of the Constitution and asserted that federal laws took precedence over state laws.
87
By the 1820s and 1830s, new political parties arose—
the Democrats, led by Andrew Jackson, and the Whigs,
led by Henry Clay—that disagreed about the role
and powers of the federal government and issues such as the national bank, tariffs, and federally funded internal improvements.
88
Regional interests often trumped national concerns as
the basis for many political leaders’ positions on slavery and economic policy.
89
While Americans embraced a new national culture,
various groups developed distinctive cultures of their own.
90
The rise of democratic and individualistic beliefs, a response to rationalism, and changes to society caused by the market revolution, along with greater social
and geographical mobility, contributed to
a Second Great Awakening among Protestants that influenced moral and social reforms and inspired utopian and other religious movements.
91
A new national culture emerged that combined
American elements, European influences, and regional cultural sensibilities.
92
Liberal social ideas from abroad and Romantic beliefs in human perfectibility influenced
literature, art, philosophy, and architecture.
93
Enslaved blacks and free African Americans created
communities and strategies to protect their dignity and family structures, and they joined political efforts aimed at changing their status.
94
Increasing numbers of Americans, many inspired by new
religious and intellectual movements, worked primarily outside of government institutions to advance their ideals.
95
Americans formed new voluntary organizations that
aimed to change individual behaviors and improve society through temperance and other reform efforts.
96
Abolitionist and antislavery movements gradually achieved emancipation in
the North, contributing to
the growth of the free African American population, even as many state governments restricted African Americans’ rights. Antislavery efforts
in the South were largely limited to unsuccessful slave rebellions.
97
A women’s rights movement sought to create
greater equality and opportunities for women, expressing its ideals at the Seneca Falls Convention.
98
Innovations in technology, agriculture,
| and commerce powerfully accelerated the American economy, precipitating
profound changes to U.S. society and to national and regional identities.
99
New transportation systems and technologies dramatically expanded
manufacturing and agricultural production.
100
Entrepreneurs helped to create a market revolution in production and commerce, in which
market relationships between producers and consumers came to prevail as the manufacture of goods became more organized.
101
Innovations including textile machinery, steam engines, interchangeable parts, the telegraph, and agricultural inventions increased the
efficiency of production methods.
102
Legislation and judicial systems supported the
development of roads,
canals, and railroads, which extended and enlarged markets and helped foster regional interdependence. Transportation networks linked the North and Midwest more closely than either was linked to the South.
103
The changes caused by the market revolution had significant effects on
U.S. society, workers’ lives, and gender and family relations.
104
Increasing numbers of Americans, especially women and men working in factories, no longer relied on
semisubsistence agriculture; instead they supported themselves producing goods for distant markets.
105
The growth of manufacturing drove a significant increase in prosperity and standards of living for some; this led to
the emergence of a larger middle class and a small but wealthy business elite but also to a large and growing population of laboring poor.
106
Gender and family roles changed in response to the market revolution, particularly with the growth of
definitions of domestic ideals that emphasized the separation of public and private spheres.
107
Economic development shaped
settlement and trade patterns, helping to unify the nation while also encouraging the growth of different regions.
108
Large numbers of international migrants
| moved to i
industrializing northern cities, while many Americans moved west of the Appalachians, developing thriving new communities along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers.
109
Increasing Southern
| cotton production and the related growth of Northern manufacturing, banking, and shipping industries promoted
the development of national and international commercial ties.
110
Southern business leaders continued to
rely on the production and export of traditional agricultural staples, contributing to the growth of a distinctive Southern regional identity.
111
Plans to further unify the U.S. economy, such as the American System, generated
debates over whether such policies would benefit agriculture or industry, potentially favoring different sections of the country.
112
The U.S. interest in increasing foreign trade and expanding its national borders shaped t
the nation’s foreign policy and spurred government and private initiatives.
113
Struggling to create an independent global presence, the United States sought to
claim territory throughout the North American continent and promote foreign trade.
114
Following the Louisiana Purchase, the United States government sought influence and control over North America and the Western Hemisphere through a
variety of means, including
exploration, military actions, American Indian removal, and diplomatic efforts such as the Monroe Doctrine.
115
Frontier settlers tended to champion expansion efforts, while American Indian resistance led to
a sequence of wars and federal efforts to control and relocate American Indian populations.
116
The United States’s acquisition of lands in the West gave rise to
contests over the extension of slavery into new territories.
117
As overcultivation depleted arable land in the Southeast, slaveholders began
relocating their plantations to more fertile lands west
| of the Appalachians, where the institution of slavery continued to grow.
118
Antislavery efforts increased
in the North, while in the South, although the majority of Southerners owned no slaves, most leaders argued that slavery was part of the Southern way of life.
119
Congressional attempts at political compromise, such as the Missouri Compromise, only temporarily
stemmed growing tensions between opponents and defenders of slavery.
