Key Question 1

Question 1

What is….

Liberalism

Answer 1

A belief that the government should be reformed to allow as much personal and economic freedom as possible.

Nineteenth-century liberals also favoured the concept of representative assemblies, although these would not necessarily be elected by all adults.

Question 2

What is…

Nationalism

Answer 2

A belief that people with a common language, culture or history should have the right to govern themselves, and that the boundaries between states should be based on this.

Question 3

What is…

Conservatism

Answer 3

A cultural, social and political philosophy and ideology, which seems to promote and preserve traditional institutions, customs and values.

Question 4

Germany before 1815

What territory did Germany have before 1815?

Answer 4

• did not exist in 1815 as a single country. It consisted of a series of different states.
• much of the territory lay within the boundaries of an organisation known as the German Confederation: a loose association of states which retain some control over their own policies.
• before the Napoleonic Wars, most of the area now known as Germany hsd been part of the medieval Holy Roman Empire, a collection of semi-independant states under the Austrian emperor
• this collapsed in 1806, as a result of Napoleon’s invasion. He reorganised the west German states into a single organisation, the Confederation of Rhine.

Question 5

Germany before 1815

What were the Napoleonic Wars?

Answer 5

A conflict between Napoleon Bonaparte’s France and alliances of various European states, which began in 1803 and ended with Napoleon defeat in 1815.

Question 6

Germany before 1815

How did the Napoleonic Wars contribute to the revolutions?

Answer 6

The French armies brought with them the ideas of the Enlightenment, an intellectual movement which stressed the power of reason and sought to sweep away outdated political and social structures. For example, they replaced the diverse laws and judicial processes of the various German states with their own legal system.

In reaction, many German thinkers began to emphasise the distinctiveness of their own culture. Romantic writers stressed the importance of emotion and imagination, in response to the rational ideas of the French invaders, and they encouraged interest in the historical past of German people.

Question 7

Germany before 1815

How did the Germans unite against the French?

Answer 7

Volksgeist - the idea that each nation had its own identity based around language and shared heritage was popularised by J.G Herder.

They began to understand the importance of uniting to push back the French.

• Prussia, one of the most important states, recognised its government and army. It worked with Austria and Russia to push back the French.
• The Battle of Leipzig 1813, was a major defeat for Napoleon and created a sense of German Nationhood.

Question 8

Germany before 1815

What was the post-war settlement (Congress of Vienna)?

September 1814

Answer 8

September 1814, the Congress of Vienna was held to discuss the problems caused by the wars and to establish new boundaries on the continent.

European states sent representatives, the most important being Austria, Prussia, Britain and Russia. France was present but had no decision-making powers. The congress changed the face of Europe.

The leaders of Europe had to deal with the spread of ideas that had stemmed from the French revolution, namely Liberalism and Nationalism.

All of the leaders who met at Vienna regarded these ideas with anxiety.

Question 9

Germany before 1815

Answer 9

At this time, the European leaders were largely conservatives and wanted to restore stability after years of upheaval caused by the revolution in France and the movements of French armies across the continents.

They wanted to recreate the rule of the old royal families who had lost power during the previous 20 years.

Question 10

Klemens von Metternich

Who was Prince Klemens von Metternich?

Answer 10

The Austrian Foreign Minister. His main aim was to protect Austria’s interests.
He was very conservative and was determined to supress nationalism and liberty.

He described the words ‘liberty’ and ‘equality’ as the source of evil as they were able to mislead the masses.
He knew that the empire was fragile and believed that if the Germans and other nationalities were allowed independance, then the empire would collapse.

Question 11

Klemens von Metternich

What did Klemens von Metternich do?

Answer 11

He designed the Metternich system to maintain the absolute rule of the Hapsburgs and other similar systems.

• He avoided stationing troops in the areas they came from to reduce the chance of organised nationalistic opposition and uprising developing.
• He created a network of secrey agents and press censorship was introduced. This system did keep the peace but resentment began to grow.

The Metternich System reorganised Germany into a confederation of 39 states that were under the control of Austria.
Germany was NOT united, the system’s intention was actually to stop that from happening.

Question 12

The Confederation

What was the Confederation?

Answer 12

Met in Frankfurt and was made up of ambassadors of the member states.
designed to maintain Austrian control. The chair of the Diet was and Austrian representative who could veto any attempts to change the constitution.
The main southern states would usually support Austria due to cultural similarities and sympathies.
Most states would follow Metternich’s lead in governing in an authoritarian fashion.

Question 13

The Confederation

What problems did the Confederation face?

Answer 13

• Individual rules managed their own internal and domestic affairs, this led to the confederation never developing its own identity, there was no civil service and no attempt to develop its own
• In 1821 discussions regarding a federal defence force failed as no one could agree on funding or who should be in control.

Question 14

The Confederation

Summary of the German Confederation

Answer 14

At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, at the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars:
- The Congress set up a German Confederation for these states, with the same boundaries as the old Holy Roman Empire. However this was not a prototype Germany as it included many non-German areas.
E.g. parts of Austria’s large non-German empire were included, and some German-speaking groups were excluded.
- A federal diet (assembly) did meet but it was little more than a debating chamber where member states protected their own interests rather than seeking to promote a unified German state.
- There was therefore very limited political coordination between the members of the German Confederation in the initial period that followed its establishment.

Question 15

Prussia

Why did Prussia rival Austria’s dominance?

Answer 15

• King Friedrich Wilhelm III was an authoritarian rule supported by the landowning Junkers.The Junkers were the core of the Prussian armies’ officers and politically conservative.
• Prussia gained a lot of territory in the 1815 settlement including part of the Rhineland which was separated from the rest of Prussia. This settlement doubled Prussia’s population to over 10 million it became the only true future rival to Austrian dominance.
• Both Austria and Prussia had a stake in preventing political change in Germany.

Question 16

Liberalism

10 Core Principles of Classical Liberalism

https://youtu.be/fqRWlNVyV0A

Answer 16

1. Liberty: primary political value, the government should act to prevent harm
2. Individualism: is more important that the collective
3. Skepticism about power
4. Rule of law: should be used in all government. (No difference depending on race etc.)
5. Civil Society
6. Spontaneous Order: predictability, (should know the results of decisions)
7. Free Markets: Voluntary interaction of people, (increases prosperity, decreases poverty)
8. Toleration: Freedom of Speech (do not interfere with things to dissaprove of)
9. Peace: no violence or war
10. Limited Government: only protect life, liberty and property

Question 17

Liberalism

How did the influence of liberal ideas aid the emergence of a middle-class?

Answer 17

Liberalism, which the Metternich system sought to suppress, was primarily an ideology of educated middle-class people who consisted of two main groups:
- businesspeople
- proffesionals such as lawyers, officials, doctors and university teachers

The growing business class were not, for the most part, owners of large factories. Most were merchants who controlled small workshops or employed large numbers of workers who produced goods in their own homes. In Prussia, they had benefitted from the removal of privileges that had been enjoyed up to the early 19th century by the traditional guilds, allowing anyone to become an employer without first joining one of these organisations.

Question 18

Liberalism

How did the emergence of a middle-class aid the revolution?

Answer 18

• Successful merchants often had a sense of civic responsibility, which led them to become leaders in their communities.
• Germany’s university population doubled between 1817 and 1931.
• The emergence the middle class was also instrumental in the growth of a thriving newspaper press, as levels of literacy and awareness of public affairs increased.
• The middle classes experienced a sense of exclusion from the upper levels of the social order, which were still dominated by privileged landowning aristocracy. In Prussia, for example, the aristocratic Junker class, which owned large agricultural estates in the eastern part of the country, controlled most of the higher positions in the army and civil service.
• The desire of many members of the middle classes to gain access to the opportunities offered by these public service careers made liberal ideas attractive to them.

Question 19

Liberalism

How did the removal of privileges enjoyed by traditional guilds in Prussia contribute to the spread of liberal ideas among the educated middle-class?

Answer 19

If they can employ people, they will make more money. -> can also spread the ideas of liberalism to more people

Question 20

Liberalism

What role did the educated middle-class play in the growth of the newspaper press and cultural societies in Germany during the early 19th century?

Answer 20

Newspaper press: increased awareness and spread liberal ideas. -> the people producing and the people consuming.
Increased knowledge of public affairs.

Question 21

Liberalism

How did their sense of civic responsibility and exclusion from the upper levels of society influence the educated middle-class support for liberalism?

Answer 21

Liberalism gave the middle-class an opportunity to enter the upper levels of society and gave them the freedom they believed they deserved.

Question 22

Liberalism

What were the middle-class liberals’ view on government and monarchy?

Answer 22

• wanted the people to have some say in government, but they did not want to see the establishment of fully democratic, republican systems of government.
• liberals wanted representative assemblies or parliaments, elected by property-owning people like themselves
• constitutional monarchy was their preffered form of government -> a middle way between the authoritarian rule of an old-style monarchy, and democracy which was seen as a dangerous system leading to mob rule and the seizure of power by poor, uneducated people
• many political liberals believed in the idea of laissez-faire economics (meaning ‘leave it alone’) -> trade and economics functioned without government interferance
  -> wanted to remove tariffs, which restricted trade
• economic liberals wanted to promote competition between businesses, which they argued would reduce prices and improve the quality of goods for consumers

Question 23

Liberalism

How did the middle-class liberals’ view of government and democracy reflect their social and economic interests?

Question 24

Liberalism

What was the impact of laissez-faire economics on the political and economic landscape of the time?

According to the beliefs of middle-class liberals at the time

Answer 24

• reduce prices of goods whilst improving the quality
• aimed to make money and maintain their positions

Question 25

# Liberalism How did the middle-class stance on tariffs and competition between businesses align with their broader political goals?

Answer 25

Open international trade. A way to get more more power / wealth.

Question 26

# Liberalism What did liberals believe would happen if the people were given freedom?

Answer 26

They had an optimistic belief in human's capacity for self-improvement. That, if given freedom they would work to improve their circumstances, and this would help society as a whole to make progress.

Question 27

# Liberalism What was the influence of liberalism?

Answer 27

**Intellectual excitement in the period 1815-1848**. - the publication of books and pamphlets - staging of public lectures However, it seems unlikely that this activity reached more than a limited circle of like-minded, well-off educated people. Some liberals took their ideas to working-class areas. The workers were interested, however they tended to be radicals who favoured the creation of a democratic republic. Many expected to achieve this through popular uprising rather than through rational debate.

Question 28

# Liberalism Why might working-class individuals have been more inclined towards radical ideas and the pursuit of a democratic republic through popular uprising rather than rational debate?

Answer 28

Instability and resentment Many of these people were uneducated and not in the right positions to make debates. E.g. they could not acces information published in the press. Radical ideas were their only option. They wanted an immediate change rather than a gradual one.

Question 29

# Nationalism How strong was nationalism in Germany?

Answer 29

The belief that people of the same race, language, culture or history should be united in an independant nation of their own. Support for nationalism was limited mainly to small sections of society - literate, professional people and members of student associations known as the Burschenschaften. The majority of people were peasants who worked in agriculture. They faced a daily struggle for existence and were likely to have had little interest in abstract ideas of this kind. Rather than a strong sense of nationality, most Germans felt greater loyalty to the region where they lived. Communications were poor and people were usually born, lived, married, worked and died in the same villaged or neighbouring towns. Each region had its own traditions / customs. Little desire to see the creation of a strong central government, which might impose additional taxes, interfere with civil liberties and draft people into the armed forces.

Question 30

# Nationalism How did religion affect the strength of nationalism?

Answer 30

Whilst there was a common language and culture, but there was no religious unity. - Southern states (Bavaria and Baden) + Western provinces ( Rhineland + Westphalia) = mainly Catholic - Prussia proper + Northern Germany = mostly Protestant

Question 31

# Nationalism What was the conservative reaction to nationalism?

Answer 31

Metternich was successful in containing the liberal and nationalist movements in the 15 years following Vienna. After a member of a liberal student association murdered a conservative writer and Russian spy, Metternich secured the agreement of the main German states in **August 1819** for the repressive Carlsbad decrees, they had 3 key features.

Question 32

# Nationalism What were the 3 key features of the Carlsbad decrees?

Answer 32

Universities: each university had an 'extraordinary commissioner' assigned to it tp supervise the teaching programme. Liberal teachers who undermined the establishing order were removed from their posts. The Burschenschaften and any other unauthorised student clubs should be dissolved. A central investigation commission, armed with inquisitorial powers, should be set up in Mainz with powers to ferret out conspiratorial organisations promoting nationalism and liberty. The Press: the member states of the Confederation and the Diet were to censor the newspaper press.

Question 33

# Liberalism How did liberalist ideas increase?

Answer 33

In time, liberalism took a stonger hold across Germany, especially in the South. This was partly in response to a revolution which occured in Paris in **July 1830.** Charles X, the last ruler of the old Bourbon dynasty, was replaced by King Louis Phillipe, a representative of another branch of the French royal family. Charles attempted to govern like his predecessors (old-style absoloute monarchy). By contrast, Louis Phillipe established a parliamentary monarchy. based on the consent of the educated, property-owning middle-class. In four small German states (Saxony, Hanover, Hesse-Cassel and Brunswick), rulers were obliged to grant constitutions. Increased press freedom allowed more criticism of government. In May 1832, nationalists organised the Hambach Festival in Bavaria, where liberal and nationalist ideas were openly discussed. A group called Young Germany was established, which called for a united Germany based on liberal principles.

Question 34

# Why Germany was not in danger of revolution? Why was Germany not in any danger of revolution in this period?

Answer 34

Liberals and nationalists were two few, and Austria also had the support of Prussia and the Confederation in dealing with opposition. 1837: Ernest August (King of Hanover) abolished the constitution that had been granted by his predecessor and seven professors that objected to this losts their posts at the University of Gottingham (two of these professors were the Grimm brothers). This was typical of most of the German states. Demands for political change failed to achieve anything substantial. Most of the princes ensured that they kept levels of power in their hands when they granted constitutions. They retained the rights to veto unwelcome proposals and could usually rely on support from the aristocracy. Several devices had an affect on restricting the free expression of public opinion.

Question 35

# Why Germany was not in danger of revolution? What devices had an affect on restricting the free expression of public opinion?

Answer 35

- restricting the vote to wealthy property owners - indirect voting - having different classes vote in seperate estates, with greater weight attatched to those in which the upper-classes were represented.

Question 36

# Why Germany was not in danger of revolution? What happened in **1840** when **Frederick William IV** became ruler of Prussia?

Answer 36

- he was unstable and swung between ultra-conservative beliefs and promotion of liberal ideas. - encouraged free thinking and academics dismissed from other German univerities. - censorship was relaxed - he gave greater powers to the provincial Diets or assemblies, but he rejected demads for a single parliament for all Prussian territories

Question 37

# Causes of revolution What impact did the Hambach Festival have on the revolution?

Answer 37

- people could freely discuss liberal and national ideas - opposing ideas could be shared publicly - festival - celebratory tone - people who may not have been a part of the opposition may be influenced - people joining together

Question 38

# Opportunities and obstacles to economic growth What economic progress was made in the early 19th century?

Answer 38

- economic progress made in the first half of the 19th century. Germany's geographical situation was an advantage -> meant that Germany could trade easily with both east and west. - however 70% of the population still made their living from agriculture, manufacturing was the main economic activity only in certain area, notably Rhineland and Saxony - heavy manufacturing began to take off from the 1840s, with the rapid development of railways, especially in Prussia. The railways attracted capital investement and stimulated the coal and iron idustries. - encourage the emergence of larger industrial firms and the rise of new urban centres.

Question 39

# Opportunities and obstacles to economic growth How did Germany's economy change after the Napoleonic Wars?

Answer 39

- economic growth held back by the existence of customs barriers between members of the German Confederation. -> slowed down trade across Germany, every time a product crossed the border it was likely to be taxed by the territory it was entering. -> this could happen numerous times on a long journey across Germany. -> larges states like Prussia often had internal boundaries and imposed tolls on goods. -> this entailed the time-consuming completion of bereaucratic paperwork at borders, increasing the cost of transport - German industries had to contend with competition from foreign products, which did not face duties at the external borders of the Confederation. -> this meant that German firms within the Confederation had no competitive advantage over non-German ones outside.

Question 40

# Opportunities and obstacles to economic growth How did Prussia lead the way in promoting change?

Answer 40

**1818** - abolished its 67 internal customs barriers because they hindered trade -> this encouraged other German states to do the same -> this protected its own industries from foreign competition by charging a tariff on imports, this was initially set at a low level to disourage smuggling and so that foreign countries would not retaliate with high tariffs of our own. - the Prussians worked to remove barriers within the German Confederation in order to create a larger market and reduce the price of goods. - alongside the appearance of new roads and railways, steamboat services on teh Rhine and Elbe rivers also helped teh growth of the Prussian economy.