Kinesiology Quiz 3

Question 1

Definition of Motor Learning

Answer 1

A set of processes associated with practice or experience leading to a relatively permanent change in the capability for skilled performance.

Question 2

Learning allows…

Answer 2

humans and other organisms to adapt to features of their environment and profit from experience

Question 3

Features of Motor Learning

Answer 3

1. learning is a set of processes
2. Motor learning is not directly observable
3. learning occurs as a direct result of practice or experience
4. change in performance must be relatively permanent

Question 4

Performance curves

Answer 4

• Performance plotted as a function of practice

Question 5

Ceiling and Floor effects

Answer 5

Ceiling effect: occurs when participants’ scores cluster toward the highest limit of the measure/instrument
Floor effect: participants scores cluster toward the lowest score possible

Question 6

Massed vs. Distributed Practice

Answer 6

Massed practice: a practice schedule in which the duration of rest between practice trials is relatively short
Distributed Practice: A practice schedule in which the duration of rest between practice trials is relatively long

Question 7

Transfer/Retention Design (Gold Standard)

Answer 7

Three Components
1. Practice
2. Retention interval
- has to be there so we can test permanence to see if there was a permanent change
- have to let any temporary effect of practice dicipate (has to be long enough)
3. Retention test

Question 8

Performance vs. Learning Variables

Answer 8

Performance Variable: something that has a relatively temporary effect on motor performance
-use at a game
-fatigue is a negative performance variable
Learning Variable: Something that has relatively permanent effect on motor performance
-use at practice

Question 9

Electromyography (EMG)

Answer 9

-Technique used to record and analyze the myoelectric signals. Myoelectric signals are the electrical manifestation of the neuromuscular activation associated with contracting muscle.
-the higher the amplitude the great the force exerted by the muscle

Question 10

Eye Tracking

Answer 10

-Sensor technology that can detect a person’s direction of gaze and record where a person is looking during an action
-following eye movements through infrared light that illuminates the pupil and generates a reflection on the cornea, camera records reflection and determines eye rotation

Question 11

Motion Capture

Answer 11

-The process of recording the movement of objects and/or people

Question 12

Fitts Stages of Motor Learning

Answer 12

1. Cognitive Stage : learner trying to figure out what to do
2. Fixation Stage: Learner trying to organize more effective movement patterns
3. Autonomous Stage: decreased attentional demand

Question 13

What are two critical motor learning variables?

Answer 13

amount of practice and feedback (intrinsic and extrinsic)
-intrinsic: comes as a natural consequence of doing the task
-extrinsic: from artificial/outside source (someone telling a person what they did wrong)

Question 14

Typical Performance Curve

Answer 14

• Early on in practice performance improves a lot
  -Rate of change decreases over time because as practice keeps going learning slows
  -Performance improved over time, individuals always continue to get better. Performance improves most quickly early on.

Question 15

What question was Muybridge trying to answer when he developed his photographic technique?

Answer 15

Do all four hoofs of a horse leave the ground at the same time when a horse trots and gallops?
-Answer: yes

Question 16

What are the Three primary techniques for presenting the skill to the learner?

Answer 16

• Verbal Instructions: to be effective they need to be clear, concise, and limited to one or two skill components. Alone verbal instructions are usually not very useful for motor learning.
  -Demonstration: can result in observational learning
  -Guidance: Directing a learner through task performance. Helping learner through task. Guidance can be physical, verbal, or visual.

Question 17

Ways to demonstrate a skill?

Answer 17

-Instructor: does demonstration
-Peer: if instructor can’t demonstrate a skill peer can demonstrate. Learner might benefit more from peer than instructor.
-Picture/Video

Question 18

Types of Guidance

Answer 18

-Physical Guidance: instructor device comes in contact with learner and shows learner how to do the task by putting them in a position or help them move through a range of motion.
- Guidance is a strong positive performance variable but a weak positive learning variable

Question 19

Does guidance have a stronger positive influence on performance or learning?

Answer 19

it affects performance while your practicing
-Guidance is a strong positive performance variable, but a weak positive learning variable

Question 20

When should you use guidance?

Answer 20

1. Early in learning - if necessary
2. When there is a risk of or fear of injury

Question 21

Skill presentation techniques should encourage the development of a …..

Answer 21

Reference of Correctness: An awareness of how a movement should “feel” when it is performed correctly.
-ideal if a learner can gain awareness of how a movement should feel.

Question 22

Suzuki Method

Answer 22

-Uses the concept of a reference of correctness
- At the beginning of practice, learner music by ear is emphasized of reading musical notation.
-If learner can hear sound they know how to correct their errors

Question 23

Two Fundamental Forms of Rehearsal for Motor Learning

Answer 23

-Physical Practice: physically do the skill
-Mental Practice: think about doing the skill so we learn the skill

Question 24

Physical practice techniques:

Answer 24

-Part Practice: a procedure in which a skill is broken down into parts that are practiced separately.
-Part practice will result in transfer of learning. (the gain or loss of proficiency on one task, when you gain knowledge on skill 2)
-Whole Practice

Question 25

Transfer of Learning

Answer 25

-Positive transfer of learning: if you practice task A you get better at task B -Negative transfer of learning: if your practice task A you get worse at task B

Question 26

The effectiveness of part practice depends on the skill...

Answer 26

-Serial skills: part practice is best for serial skills. Discrete skills put together to make a new whole skill -Continuous skills: done almost repeatedly no identifiable beginning and end -Discrete Skills: identifiable beginning and end. Not suitable for part practice because they only have one part.

Question 27

Component (part-to-part) Interaction in Serial Skills

Answer 27

-The extent to which one part of the skill influences other parts of the skill -The lower the component interaction, the less effective part practice will be

Question 28

Simulation Practice

Answer 28

-Mimicking features of a target skill (or real world skill also called criterion task) -Sometimes it is not possible or desirable to practice the target skill (criterion task) -The goal of simulation is to maximize the transfer of learning to the target skill without actually doing the target skill -engage in simulation and improve transfer of target learning

Question 29

simulation fidelity

Answer 29

-Fidelity refers to the extent to which the simulator mimics the criterion task -there is physical and psychological

Question 30

Physical Fidelity

Answer 30

The degree to which the physical features of the simulator and criterion task are identical

Question 31

Psychological Fidelity

Answer 31

The degree to which the behavioral processes produced in the simulation replicate those required by the criterion task

Question 32

PrimaryAdvantages of Simulation

Answer 32

-Safety -Convenience -Cost Effectiveness

Question 33

Mental Rehearsal Techniques

Answer 33

-Mental Practice -performers think through/about the cognitive or procedural aspects of a motor skill in the absence of movement (waling through plays) -Mental Imagery -performers imagine themselves performing a motor skill (from an internal or external perspective)

Question 34

What is Blocked Practice?

Answer 34

a practice sequence in which all of the trials of one task are done together, uninterrupted by practice of other tasks

Question 35

What is Random Practice?

Answer 35

-a practice sequence in which the tasks being practiced are ordered randomly across trials -Also called interleaved practice -rarely do the same thing during consecutive trials

Question 36

Which is the stronger positive performance variable (blocked or random)?

Answer 36

blocked

Question 37

Which is the stronger positive learning variable (blocked or random)?

Answer 37

random

Question 38

What are the two hypotheses for why random practice is so effective for learning?

Answer 38

Elaboration and Forgetting Hypothesis

Question 39

Elaboration Hypothesis

Answer 39

first 10 trials you do A, 11th trial you do B, so between 10th and 11th trial you compare A and B. For random you constantly compare A,B, and C to one another

Question 40

When should blocked practice be used?

Answer 40

-Cognitive and early fixation stage of learning -Anytime practice performance is more important then learning -When first learning a task

Question 41

When should random practice be used?

Answer 41

-Fixation stage of learning -If you are performing to the best of your ability you are not learning the most!

Question 42

What is Constant Practice?

Answer 42

-A practice sequence in which performers rehearse only one variation for a given task (throwing the same way to the same target one distance away)

Question 43

What is Variable Practice?

Answer 43

A practice sequence in which performers rehearse several of variations of a given task (throwing to a target different distances away)

Question 44

Which is the stronger positive performance variable (constant or variable)?

Answer 44

constant

Question 45

Which is the stronger positive learning variable (constant or variable)?

Answer 45

variable

Question 46

What is the hypothesis for why variable practice is so effective for learning?

Answer 46

Schema theory

Question 47

What is a Schema?

Answer 47

A schema is a learned rule relating various outcomes of a person's actions to the parameter values chosen to produce those outcomes -every dot on the scatterplot is an individual movement with an outcome. Theory says all dots fade over time but what remains is the line of best fit a line is the schema (what you actually learn) -Variable practice produces a schema

Question 48

When should constant practice be used?

Answer 48

-Cognitive and early fixation stage of learning -Anytime practice performance is more important than learning

Question 49

When should variable practice be used?

Answer 49

Fixation stage of learning

Question 50

Individual Differences

Answer 50

-Variable practice has a stronger positive effect on children than adults.

Question 51

Theoretically, the best learning would result from using which two practice organizations simultaneously?

Answer 51

Random and Variable

Question 52

Feedback for Learning

Answer 52

Feedback is a critical motor learning and performance variable

Question 53

Feedback during the learning experience can be classified as ______ or _____

Answer 53

inherent or augmented

Question 54

Inherent (intrinsic) Feedback

Answer 54

sensory information that arises as a natural consequence of producing a movement

Question 55

Augmented (extrinsic) feedback

Answer 55

Information about movement that is provided to the learner in addition to the information contained in inherent feedback. Provided by some artificial means. (in addition to what you get by the natural feedback)

Question 56

True or False: Augmented feedback is necessary for motor learning to occur

Answer 56

False

Question 57

Augmented Feedback is Classified as either:

Answer 57

knowledge of results or knowledge of performance

Question 58

Knowledge of Results

Answer 58

-augmented feedback about whether or not you succeeded at an action with respect to the goal -ex. time in race, score in gymnastics

Question 59

Knowledge of Performance

Answer 59

-Augmented feedback about the movement pattern the learner has made -ex. high jump-"your approach run was too fast"

Question 60

Real World situations

Answer 60

-In the real world KP is more common than KR. -Most of the time information about one's goal achievement is available intrinsically (as inherent feedback)

Question 61

Typical ways of providing augmented feedback to a learner

Answer 61

-verbal feedback -video (more useful if accompanied by cueing)

Question 62

What are the four fundamental ways in which augmented feedback can influence learning?

Answer 62

-Motivational Properties -Informational Properties -Attention-focusing Properties -Dependency-Producing Properties

Question 63

Feedback that is motivational may cause a learner to:

Answer 63

-pay more attention -try harder -practice longer

Question 64

Attention-focusing Properties

Answer 64

-Augmented feedback can be used to direct the learner's attention to the purpose of practice -ex internal vs. external focus of attention

Question 65

Informational Properties of Augmented Feedback

Answer 65

information about movement patterns and errors -This is the most important function of extrinsic feedback during motor skill practice -Descriptive(tells the learner what they did) and Prescriptive (provides a solution to fixing the problem) feedback -Program Feedback(feedback about a motor program, what to do in terms of the fundamental movement pattern, info that involves invariant features) and Parameter feedback (feedback about parameters of a motor program, ex. that was to slow) -Advanced learners get more parameter feedback -Precision of Augmented Feedback: the accuracy with which feedback describes the error -Direction of error (to the right) (if you can only pick one pick direction) -Magnitude of error (5cm)

Question 66

Precision of Feedback

Answer 66

-the Precision of feedback should increase over the course of learning. -precision of feedback went up for both kids and adults but at some points the children got worse and the adults leveled out

Question 67

Problems with Dependency

Answer 67

-Performance declines when augmented feedback is not available -Performer fails to learn to take advantage of intrinsic feedback

Question 68

Absolute Frequency of Feedback

Answer 68

-The total number of feedback presentations given for a series of practice trials ex. 20 trials, 10 of which are followed by augmented feedback, the absolute frequency=10

Question 69

Relative Frequency of Feedback

Answer 69

-The percentage of practice trials receiving augmented feedback ex. 20 trials, 10 of which are followed by augmented feedback, the relative frequency = 50%

Question 70

Guidelines concerning the Frequency of Augmented Feedback

Answer 70

-In general, increasing the absolute frequency of feedback enhances learning -Research has shown that the relative frequency of augmented feedback should be high when learning begins and reduced thereafter -referred to as faded feedback: learners frequency or relative feedback is faded (goes down) overtime

Question 71

Reducing the relative frequency of feedback is helpful because it:

Answer 71

-Promotes the use of intrinsic feedback -Prevents dependency on augmented feedback

Question 72

Is it possible to increase the absolute frequency while at the same time reducing the relative frequency?

Answer 72

Yes, it requires an increase in the number of practice trials

Question 73

How to decide wether or not to provide feedback

Answer 73

Use bandwidth feedback : this is feedback given to learners only when their errors exceed a certain tolerance level

Question 74

Summary Feedback

Answer 74

-feedback that is given after a series of practice trials that provides the learner with summary information about their trials - it is a strong positive learning variable -Maximizes the amount of information provided to the learner, without the dependency-producing effects of providing feedback for every trial -Encourages learner to use intrinsic feedback

Question 75

Timing of Extrinsic Feedback

Answer 75

How much time passes after a trial before feedback is provided is not critical, with one exception.... avoid instantaneous feedback -you can not use augmented feedback until you process what you just did

Question 76

What are two specific benefits of practice related attention?

Answer 76

reduces capacity demands and reduces effector competition

Question 77

List and describe Bernstein's Stages of learning

Answer 77

Freezeing the degrees of freedom: when we are first learning we limit/ freeze the degrees of freedom releasing degrees of freedom: we release them becoming more fluid Exploiting the passive dynamics: when we get to a certain level we suck out all the energy for the things we do

Question 78

What is the warm-up decrement? How can it be reduced?

Answer 78

a psychological effect after having not performed a skill for a period of time, performance is hindered, but after practicing for a few minutes decrement is gone

Question 79

How is the amount of component interaction present in a serial skill related to the effectiveness of part practice?

Answer 79

The lower the component interaction the more effective part practice will be.

Question 80

Why would a rapid-discrete task not respond well to part practice?

Answer 80

task must be practiced as a whole to effectively learn

Question 81

When should massed practice never be used?

Answer 81

if there is a risk for injury

Question 82

Explain how blocked and random practice differ from variable and constant practice?

Answer 82

Blocked and random are sequences/orders you do the movement, while constant and variable are specific tasks practice

Question 83

Provide three examples of how you could provide variable practice for the task of juggling three objects.

Answer 83

Change the height you throw the ball, change the speed, what objects are you juggling

Question 84

What is the difference between a motor learning variable and a motor performance variable?

Answer 84

A motor learning variable is something that has a relatively permanent influence on motor performance. A motor performance variable is something that has a relatively temporary influence on motor performance.

Question 85

Why is the retention-interval necessary to test whether learning has occured?

Answer 85

retention interval is necessary because we need time in between the original learning and final test to see if a person actually learned.

Question 86

What are the fundamental requirements of a transfer design?

Answer 86

Practice, retention test, and retention interval

Question 87

What two points are compared to assess whether learning has occurred?

Answer 87

initial practice performance and retention time test

Question 88

Watching the volleyball you just served land out of bounds would be classified as:

Answer 88

inherent (because you saw it happen) it is also exteroception (comparing something in the environment to something in the environment)

Question 89

What are the two critical/essential motor learning variables?

Answer 89

Practice(particular amount of practice) and feedback

Question 90

What is the highest stage of learning?

Answer 90

autonomous stage (people can fix their own errors)

Question 91

Is augmented feedback processed consciously or unconsciously?

Answer 91

consciously

Question 92

Ideally, how should the absolute and relative frequencies of augmented feedback change over the course of motor learning?

Answer 92

Absolute frequency should go up while the relative frequency goes down