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1
Q

Category

A

A group of objects in the world

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2
Q

Concept

A

A mental representation of such a group

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3
Q

Categorization

A

To think of an object X as an instance of a category

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4
Q

Why we love classical view

A
  1. Cognitive economy
  2. Generalization
  3. Communication
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5
Q

Cognitive ecomony

A

Just need definition

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6
Q

Generalization

A

Must have necessary features

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7
Q

Communication

A

Everyone has same concept

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8
Q

Why we hate classical view

A
  1. Failure to find definitions for real world concepts
  2. Borderline cases
    - Is a lamp a type of furniture
  3. Some members are better than others
    - bird: a robin is better than a penguin
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9
Q

Typicality effects

A

Phenomena in which some instance seem like “better” category members than others

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10
Q

T or F: typicality predicts a variety of behavioral measures

A

True

- generalization

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11
Q

Prototype Theory

A

Prototype + similarity

  • Concepts do not have definitions. They are represented by a prototype.
  • Other members share a family resemblance relation to the prototype, and typicality is a function of similarity to the prototype
  • Family resemblance
  • Prototype: maximize average sim
  • Typicality: sim to prototype
  • Graded membership
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12
Q

____ do not have definitons

A

Concepts

- they are presented by prototype

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13
Q

Other members share a ______ relations to the prototype

A

Family resemblance

- typicality is a function of similarity to the prototype

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14
Q

Graded membership

A

the observation that some concepts appear to make better category members than others

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15
Q

Posner & Keele

A

Results: Prototypes were judges to be familiar, categorized as much as “olds”
- Automatic abstraction of prototypes

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16
Q

Exemplar Models

A

Concepts do not have definitions or summary representation.

  • A concept is the set of all examples of the concept that are stored in memory
  • Concept bird: all exemplars of bird in memory
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17
Q

Levels of categorization

A
  1. Superordinate
  2. Basic level
  3. Subordinate
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18
Q

Superordinate

A

General categories: animal, tool, furniture

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19
Q

Basic level

A

Moderately specific, privileged level of categorization: bird, screwdriver, chair

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20
Q

Subordinate

A

Specific categories: humming bird, Phillips screwdriver, rocking chair (expert level)

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21
Q

Cross-modal number sense

A

.

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22
Q

Distance effect

A

No problem with 2 vs 6, but errors increase with 5 vs 6

- error rate increases at smaller numerical separation

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23
Q

Magnitude effect

A

No problem with 2 vs. 1, but errors increase with 5 vs 6

- performance decrease with larger number

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24
Q

T or F: Piaget believes small children do not have number concepts

25
Wynn (1992)
Children are more likely to stare at the error rather than the correct scene
26
Number and the brain: patient group 1 (frontal damage)
Impaired at exact calculation - Cannot do 5+ 7 = 12 Knows approximate magnitude - Close to 13
27
Verbal number system
Verbal number system tied to the language of one's original arithmetic learning - Bilinguals: solve arithmetic problems faster, more accurate, when problems presented in the language of original arithmetic learning
28
Mechner and Guevrekian
Rat received liquid reinforcement every time it pressed bar B after having waited a minimum of 5 sec following a press on bar A - vary the degree of food deprivation
29
Number and the brain: patient group 2 (parietal damage)
Preserved at exact arithmetic facts - Knows 8 x 6 = 48 (memory ok) - Impaired at approximate magnitude - Don’t know 8 > 6
30
T or F: language specific: large, exact numerosity
True
31
Framing effect/loss aversion
People react to a particular choice in different ways depending on how it is presented e. g. as a loss or as a gain. - People tend to avoid risk when a positive frame is presented but seek risks when a negative frame is presented
32
T or F: People tend to avoid risk when a positive frame is presented but seek risks when a negative frame is presented
True
33
Availability bias
To think that examples of things that come readily to mind are more representative than is actually the case
34
Conformation bias
Tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one's existing beliefs or theories.
35
Card vs. beer problem
Beer problem triggers cheater detector
36
Cheater detection
Reciprocal altruism can only evolve if animals punish cheaters - This requires a lot of mental apparatus 1. Recognizing cheater 2. Remembering those individuals 3. Motivation to punish
37
Prisoner's dilemma
Regardless of what your opponent does, it pays to defect; but if both defect, bot are worse than if both cooperate
38
Ultimatum game
A and B both worked for me. at the end of the work - A can give B any amount A chooses (from $1 -$10) - B can either accept, or reject it. If b rejects, then nobody gets anything - $1 is better than nothing - Therefore a rational person should accept $1 - Therefore A should offer $1
39
Theory of Mind
Often infer other people's mental states - Ability to attribute unobservable mental states to self and others, and use these attributed states as a coherent framework to explain and predict human behavior and experience
40
4 factors in understanding gaze
1. Detection 2. Direction 3. Joint-attention 4. Word learning
41
Understanding gaze: Detection
2 month olds spent more time looking at the figure with a complete face rather than a figure with only eyes and only lips
42
Understanding gaze: Direction
3 year olds succeeded in following the pictures eye for what they were looking at
43
Understanding gaze: Joint-attention
- 9-months: turn in the same direction that another person is looking at - 3 years: use eye direction to figure out an agent's goal Which chocolate will Charlie take? - Follow his gaze
44
Understanding gaze: Word learning
Follow the instructor's gaze to find what a toma is
45
Children's theory of the mind: stage 1
``` The "3 to 5" shift Before (desires & goals) - People have subjective desires - Detection & track eye gaze - Use eye gaze to decipher agent's goal ```
46
Children's theory of the mind: stage 2
After (beliefs) - Subjective belief & false belief - Deception - Further development: moral reasoning
47
Autism and theory of the mind: know
Autistic individuals know: - People have desires, and desires can cause emotions - Can decipher direction of eye gaze
48
Autism and theory of the mind: fail
Use eye gaze to form joint attention - Do not monitor another person's gaze - Do not point to things to direct others' attention - Fail the "which chocolate will Charlie take?" task" - Reason about other people's or own old belief - Fails Sally-Anne problem or the Smarties task even at older age
49
Autistic individuals ____ the false belief task
Fail | - False belief stories are difficult and have specific logical structure
50
Autistic individuals ____ false photograph task
Succeed
51
T or F: Autistics - impaired at TOM, not simply because they lacked visual input
True
52
Blind children: theory of mind
Are slower than normal, but do develop normal TOM | - Can direct someone else to look at something with "see" and "look"
53
Theory of mind in chimpanzees: evidence for
Chimps follow faze direction of others (Tomasello et al., 1999)
54
Theory of mind in chimpanzees: evidence against
Chimps don’t use human gaze to locate food
55
Do chimps have TOM
Subordinate avoids food the dominant could see and pursue food the D could not see: A TOM?
56
Adult theory of mind region
Temporal parietal junction
57
Children before 3-5 understand
desires and goal
58
Children after 3-5 understand
beliefs and deceptions

Cognitive Psychology (7 decks)

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