KT2

Question 1

Why did the government encourage the growth of the railroads?

Answer 1

-Enable troops to be moved around to control uprisings of the Indigenous Americans.
-Railroads would allow all Americans to be in touch with each other, creating national unity.
-Help to fulfil white American’s goal of Manifest Destiny by making it easier to migrate and secure more areas of the country.
-Let federal law officers reach new settlement that were experiencing lawlessness.
-Promote settlement of the West.
-Transport goods to ports in Oregon and California, which were well-positioned for trade with the Far East of Asia.
-Living on the Plains became less isolated as the nearest town could be reached more quickly.

Question 2

What was the Pacific Railroad Act of 1862?

Answer 2

-A transcontinental railroad was wanted because the east coast states had been crisscrossed by railroads, and everyone wanted a better nationwide alternative.
-The distances and costs were so big that no one company could afford it, and the US government therefore had to offer enormous sums of money to encourage company involvement.
-Southern states had blocked proposal of the route of the first transcontinental railroad, from Omaha to Sacramento, because it benefitted more the northern states, however when the southern states temporarily left the Union in 1861, the legislation could now be passed.

Question 3

What occurred as a result of the Act?

Answer 3

-It granted the enormous job of building the first transcontinental railroad to the Union Pacific and Central Pacific companies.
-Both companies were lent $16,000 for every mile laid, and $48,000 for each mile in the mountains, in total 16 million dollars.
-They also received 45 millions of acres of land to sell to future companies.
-The two companies’ tracks met at Promontory Summit, Utah, in 1969, marking the first Transcontinental Railroad.

Question 4

Significance of the spread of the railroad network?

Answer 4

-Easier for federal law enforcement to communicate and travel to deal with lawlessness.
-Encouraged ranching, as cows could be taken to “cow towns” and sold to eastern cities.
-Disrupted the Great Plains and interfered with buffalo migration and so IPOP life.
-Settlers had increased access to goods and technology from eastern factories to make Plains life easier.
-Towns set up at rail stations, settlements more quickly, making Plains life much less lonely as the neighbouring town quickly would be occupied.
-1969 1st TCR connected East and West by train.
-More immigrants now settled in the west because they were encouraged to travel to Western USA to buy land.
-Government agreed treaties with IPOP along the route of the 1st TCR to move them away to new reservations.
-Railroad companies used effective marketing methods to sell plots of land they had been given by the government. They sent agents to Europe to encourage them to emigrate west in search for a better way of life and make Western migration appear attractive.
-By 1880, they had sold over 200 million acres of western land and many towns had grown around the stations and railheads.

Question 5

Aims of the Homestead Act?

Answer 5

-Encouragement West settlement for individual family farmers.
-More families to work land and turn it into good farmland.

So:
-Provided land cheaply at $10
-Allowed most American/would-be American citizens to file a claim for 160 acres of land
-Required homesteaders to prove they had lived on the land for five years and improved it, to keep it permanently, known as “proving up”, and then pay a further $30 to own the property completely.
-Government worried that rich landowners would use this legislation to buy lots of cheap land, so homesteaders could not file for multiple claims.
-Head of the family/single person over the age of 21 was a valid homesteader applicant. Immigrants, women and former enslaved people were included, however the law did not include the IPOP or the soldiers who had fought on the side of the Confederacy in the Civil War.

Question 6

Successes of the Homestead Act.

Answer 6

• Over 6 million acres of land had been homesteaded by 1876.
  -80 million acres by the end of the Act in the 1930s.
  -Promise of free land an important pull factor for US immigration.
  -Act was significant in encouraging white Plains settlement. E.g. many migrated to Nebraska as homesteaders, making it a state, and 50% of settled land there was made up by homesteaders.
  -Act gave unemployed and homeless soldiers from the Civil War an opportunity, especially as they could deduct their army time from the five years for “proving up”.
  -Act did encourage increase of small family farms. 1865, Civil War ended and slavery abolished. Use of large plantations decreased with small family farms becoming more important nationwide.

Question 7

Limitations of the Homestead Act.

Answer 7

-High dropout in homesteading : 60% of claims were never proved up due to the problem of farming on the Plains.
-160 acres was big enough on the East, however in the Plains, it was harder to grow crops, and many found that the size of a homestead was not enough to support their families.
-Government gave 300 million acres to railroad companies who had sold it to settlers, this was more significant in terms of Western settlement.
-Despite government’s aims, rich landowners found a variety of ways ton buy cheap land under the Homestead Act. E.g. they claimed extra plots using the names of their employees, or claimed plots of abandoned homesteads.

Question 8

What was the problem for Homesteaders for a lack of timber?

Answer 8

-Not many trees on the Plains
-Nothing to build houses with
-Nothing to make fences to contain cattle and protect crops from animals
-Nothing to use for cooking and heating.

Question 9

How was the problem of a lack of timber sold?

Answer 9

-People began to build sod houses; made from the Earth.
-1874, barbed wire, developed by Joseph Glidden, was mass produced, cheap and easy to erect.
-Women collected dried buffalo and cattle dung, used for fuel.
-Timber Culture Act of 1873 gave homesteaders another 160 acres if they planted 40 extra trees.

Question 10

Problem of a lack of water?

Answer 10

Low rainfall and a lack of rivers and lakes.

Question 11

Solution to the problem of a lack of water?

Answer 11

-Drills developed to find underground water, then wind pumps built to bring it to the surface.
-Additional water sources often found when new land was planted.

Question 12

Problem of the hard, arid ground?

Answer 12

-Crops could not grow
-Ploughs often broke going through the deep-rooted grass
-Low rainfall prevented the growth of crops like maize and wheat, which farmers were used to in the East.

Question 13

Solution to the problem of hard, arid ground?

Answer 13

-Mass-produced and stronger machinery from eastern factories helped cultivate the land more easily.
-New techniques like dry farming, which conserved rainwater, was used.
-Invention of the “sodbuster” plough in 1868 broke through tangled roots easily.
-Migrants from Russia used Turkey Red Wheat, needing less water than other varieties, which thrived on the Plains.

Question 14

Problem of natural disasters?

Answer 14

-Included prairie fires and pests destroying crops.
-Pests, like grasshoppers, could destroy the crop for a whole season.
-Fire spread quickly and could burn everything.

Question 15

Solution to the problem of natural disasters?

Answer 15

No solution to this problem, homesteaders were bankrupted because of this.

Question 16

The size of land holdings?

Answer 16

160 acres of land could not support the average family.

Question 17

Solution to the size of land holdings?

Answer 17

-Timber Culture Act of 1873 grants farmers a further 160 million acres if they plant 40 million acres of trees on their land.
-Desert Land Act of 1877 lets settlers buy 640 acres of desert land for a very cheap price.

Question 18

Problem of disease and lack of medical care?

Answer 18

-Often, people were ill
-Sod houses were hard to keep clean and had no sanitation.

Question 19

Solution to the problem of disease and lack of medical care?

Answer 19

Women cared for the sick. using their own remedies. As communities grew, doctors also arrived.

Question 20

Problem of the lack of education?

Answer 20

Most homesteads were too far away from schools.

Question 21

Solution to the problem of education.

Answer 21

Women taught the young. As communities developed, single female teachers arrived and schools developed.

Question 22

Problem of isolation?

Answer 22

Life was lonely and tough on the Plains.

Question 23

Solutions to the problem of isolation?

Answer 23

-Railroads improved travel and brought much-needed supplies to the homesteaders and relieved isolation lots.
-Communities worked together to build schools and churches.
-Female homesteaders formed valuable social networks.

Question 24

Discuss the American Civil War

Answer 24

-Took place between 1861 and 1865, had big impact on West settlement.

-Before civil war, states could not agree on how to instil western migration:
-Southern states wanted plantations, enormous farms, worked by enslaved African Americans.
-Northern states had banned slavery and wanted thousands of small, family-owned farms in the west.

-Both sides wanted a TCR.
-When the southern states seceded from (left( the USA and formed a new, unauthorised republic called the Confederate States of America, this started the civil war.
-The Union, the northern states, were now free to vote on how they wanted western migration to be without the opinion of the southern states and the risk of them voting against their policies.
-The Union victory in the civil war in 1865 confirmed the future of western migration once and for all.

Question 25

Why was lawlessness increasing?

Answer 25

-In the Civil War, after the Confederacy had been defeated, young southern men resented the US government and its laws. -The Civil war had devastated the southern economy, leaving many unemployed. -Railroad towns gained a reputation for gambling, heavy drinking and prostitution. -Many men had been traumatised by the Civil War and struggled to fit back into society, leading many to migrate to the West, and some to be involved in crime. -Towns connected to the new railroads grew too quickly for law enforcement to maintain control. Although the federal government increased the number of sheriffs, in a local community as well as the number of marshals, the officers were unable to buck the trend of an increase in population, leading to an increase in criminal behaviour. These towns became known as "Hell on Wheels". -Trains replaced stagecoaches as the mode of transport of valuables, making them a target for train robbers. -Trains made migration easier, so settlements grew even larger. -Cowboys drove cattle to "cow tons" where they would load the cattle on a train, with the cowboys then using their wages for drinking and dancing, which then often led to fighting.

Question 26

How was lawlessness tackled?

Answer 26

-Rapid growth in populations of towns and settlements struggled to cope with lawlessness. -Combination of overcrowding, poverty and opportunities for crime, alongside a limited number and funding of law enforcement, crime and violence therefore occurred. -Some territories, like California, were enormous regions, and thousands away from federal government in Washington (who supervised law and order in areas that were not states). -Although the federal government tried to help restore law and order, towns largely had to look after themselves: -Cow towns often passed laws banning the se of firearms. -Sheriffs and marshals were employed to enforce laws by force of personality (often by fists.) -Gangs of outlaws were sometimes too powerful to control and intimidated whole communities into supporting them. -Pinkertons was a private detective agency. Banks, railroads and stagecoach companies employed workers of the company to track down robbers and thieves, as well as provide them with general advice and protection.

Question 27

What was the hierarchy of law enforcers at the time?

Answer 27

-US marshal- appointed by the president to be responsible of a state or territory that did not have their own law enforcement authorities (places that were not a state). Were poorly paid, many were corrupt, and were too few of them to be able to effectively police crime in an area as large as California. -Deputy marshals- States and territories were too large for one marshal, so deputies were appointed, They were assigned to specific towns and counties. -Town marshals- appointed by townspeople on a yearly basis. Job was to deal with local outbreaks of lawlessness like saloon brawls or drunken shootings. Could appoint deputies if necessary. Fewer in number than sheriffs but virtually did the same work. -Sheriffs- appointed in the counties for a period of office for two years. Could, as well as town marshals, force locals to form a posse to chase down criminals alongside appointing deputies if necessary.

Question 28

Federal control of law and order, extra points?

Answer 28

-To keep peace, appointed a governor, three judges or court cases. -Encouraged west migration, because once a county had 50,000 people, they then could elect a sheriff for local law enforcement. -When a territory reached a population of 60,000, it was a state, and would now have its own legal system.

Question 29

Limited success in tackling lawlessness, extra points?

Answer 29

-Could be days until news of trouble reached US marshal, and then would take days to create a response. -Federal government encouraged growth of railroads and electric telegraphs, which helped improve communication of federal law officers. -Sheriffs had mainly been chosen for their ability to keep the peace. They had no legal training, and often their decisions were not very fair, leading to resentment. -Settlers often disliked the federal government and dissociated themselves from their laws.

Question 30

What occurred in 1855 for the cattle industry?

Answer 30

-A quarantine law was passed to block Texan cattle from entering Missouri from 1855 and Kansas from 1859. -Farmers here had cows with no immunity from the "Texas fever", and so blocked the long drives to Sedalia and St Louis. The cattle had to therefore be kept outside of these quarantine zones.

Question 31

What occurred in 1861-5 for the cattle industry?

Answer 31

Texans fight for Confederacy, leaving cattle herds running wild, at the number of 5 million cows by 1865.

Question 32

What occurred in 1861-5 also for the cattle industry?

Answer 32

-Beef was in high demand in the northern towns and cities. -Drives to Sedalia were blocked because of the quarantine laws. -Texan cattlemen were desperate to discover a way to get their cattle north and east to profit greatly. -The long drives from Texas to the east was a thing from the 1830s, the big development was the westward railroad.

Question 33

What occurred in 1867 for the cattle industry?

Answer 33

Railroad reaches Abilene, Kansas. Joseph McCoy sets up the first cow town, with 35,000 cows driven there.

Question 34

What occurred in 1870s for the cattle industry?

Answer 34

Investors injected thousands into the cattle industry worldwide, marking the rise of the cattle barons.

Question 35

What was the Sedalia Trail?

Answer 35

-1850s, most of the USA cattle herds were based in southern state of Texas. -Ranchers in Texas realised that they could profit if they transported their cattle to the growing eastern towns. -The first cattle drive was down the Sedalia Trail, from there, cattle were transported by train to eastern markets. -Unfortunately after the Texas longhorn cattle contracted Texas fever, although it was harmless to the longhorns, to other cattle that the homesteaders kept on the Plains, it was deadly. As a result, in June 1853, angry mobs of homesteaders blocked the trail. -This led to the quarantine laws, making access to eastern markets difficult.

Question 36

Discuss Abilene, the introduction of the first cow town.

Answer 36

-As railroads moved further west, it created more railheads outside of the quarantine zones. -Cattle dealer Joseph McCoy was the first to see the potential in Abilene, an undeveloped area that was unquarantined, though it took some work for his image to be made real: -he had to : -in 1867, after buying land, build stockyards and hotels there for cowboys -build a new railroad spur for loading cattle onto railroad trucks -extend the Chisholm Trail, named after a trader called Jesse Chisholm who scouted the trail, up to Abilene, agreeing passage through the Indian Territory, by paying the IPOP 10 cents for every cow that passed their land in compensation for crossing their territory and disrupting their hunting. -He promoted the new route in Texas, spending $5000 on marketing.

Question 37

Development of the Chisholm Trail?

Answer 37

-1867, 36,000 cattle driven down the Trail to Abilene. -1870, 300,000 cows made the journey. -Abilene had four hotels and ten saloons, and was known as the first "cow town".

Question 38

The Goodnight-Loving Trail?

Answer 38

-Charles Goodnight, a Confederate soldier, returned from the Civil War, discovering that his herd of 180 cattle had grown into 5000. He realised there could be a market for cows in the west. -1886, Goodnight and partner, Oliver Loving, set off on their first cattle drive to Fort Summer, New Mexico. There, the government bought the cattle to feed soldiers in the cattle and the Navajo IPOP tribe on nearby reservations, as they had failed to get sufficient supplies. Goodnight charged 4x the price he would have received for cattle in Texas , selling 800 cattle for $12,000, and so made an enormous profit. -1868, Goodnight-Loving Trail extended north to reach the gold-mining towns of Colorado. Cattle there were sold for a sizeable profit, and was extended to Wyoming, where cattle was bought bought to feed the men building the TCR from the Union Pacific company.. -Goodnight was the first to lead a drive of cattle to Wyoming, and so the cattle ranches and new industry in the West and Wyoming in particular began to grow.

Question 39

John Iliff and Plains ranching?

Answer 39

-Iliff saw opportunities to sell meat in the booming towns of Colorado. -Denver, Colorado, was not a railroad until 1870, and so it was difficult to get supplies there - over the Rockies mountain range or across the Great Plains. -Iliff saw on opportunity in raising cattle on the Plains, on a ranch of 16,000 acres, discovering that the cattle could survive the harsh Plains winters and that the freezing cold killed the insects that carried Texas fever. The grass the cattle ate on the Plains cost nothing and grazing lands were close to the railroad. Instead of having to be driven for 1000s of km, the cattle were branded with an identifying mark, left to roam free, and were rounded up annually and taken the short distance to the railroad. -He became the first millionaire, with 35,000 of his cattle on the Plains, and sold his beef to miners, IPOP reservations and railroad worker gangs. -He was the first to implement open range farming on the Great Plains.

Question 40

Cattle barons?

Answer 40

-All the individuals mentioned, became cattle barons; wealthy, powerful men who controlled the cattle industry.

Question 41

Who were cowboys, what were they like?

Answer 41

-Mostly young, single men. Were Black American, IPOP American, Spanish and Mexican as well as white American. -Many were former soldiers/drifters. -Some were criminal fugitives. -The men were often tough, hard workers and hard drinkers. -On long trails, they could ride between 12-24 hours in all weathers. -Cowboys on the same cattle drive often worked miles apart, so life was lonely.

Question 42

What clothing did cowboys wear and why?

Answer 42

-Stetson hat to provide protection from sun, rain and cold. -Saddle, cowboys' most important possession. -Chaps protected their legs from vegetation and the weather. -Spurs were worn at all times because their high-heeled boots meant that their feet could not fit through the stirrups. -A lariat/lasso used to catch cattle. -Bandana, pulled over nose and mouth, protected from dust on a cattle drive.

Question 43

How did changes in ranching affect the cowboys?

Answer 43

-The development of cow towns and cattle trails in the 60s meant that ranching was more profitable. Long cattle drives was an integral part of the cowboy's year. -In the 70s, when ranching was established on the Plains, long cattle drives to the cow towns were shortened, now only days rather than months. -Drives became shorter, though there was more to do on the ranch. This was especially true during the winter as cowboys had to rescue the cattle from blizzards and find them food when the grass was frozen.

Question 44

Changes in time of work for cowboys?

Answer 44

From seasonal, from spring round-up to the autumn long-drive, to all year-round, full-time work, though fewer needed. Would spend nearly all day on the saddle for 100s of km, approx. 24 daily.

Question 45

Changes in type of work for cowboys?

Answer 45

-Used to include rounding up, branding and driving cattle hundreds of miles, looking after sick and injured cattle. They started fast, then slowed to about 20km a day for grazing. -Work included rounding up, branding and driving to the market, though over much smaller distances and were now located on ranch with herd. Also now had to check ranch boundaries, mend fencing and care for the sick and injured cattle.

Question 46

Sleeping arrangement changes for the cowboys?

Answer 46

Used to sleep in open-air, cooking on campfires, now slept in bunkhouses and used cookhouses.

Question 47

Free-time activities for cowboys?

Answer 47

From great freedom, like opportunity for saloon visits and brothels, facing the dangers of extreme weather, sleeping in the open, hostile IPOP for crossing their land, stampeding cattle, crossing rivers and quicksand in the cow towns, with some dying in extreme gunfights, to a struggle to adopt a new lifestyle, a much more safer and comfortable and secure arrangement because drinking, gambling, guns and knives were banned. If ranch was on a reservation , still could argue with IPOP, and with homesteaders,, particularly over water.

Question 48

Winter time spent change for cowboys?

Answer 48

-From staying in bunkhouses on the ranch to carry out repair work, though as well often working elsewhere, like in a bar to some cowboys spending the winter in small cabins around the ranch in order to protect their herd.

Question 49

Conflict between ranchers and the homesteaders due to rancher reliance on public land?

Answer 49

-Open range ranching required vast amounts of land for cattle to eat and roam around. -Federal law told that everyone could pasture livestock on public land for free, and so this is what the ranchers did, dividing up the open range between each ranch, and buying a few plots. -Problem came when homesteaders filed claims to turn 160 acre-plots of home land into their own, private homestead.

Question 50

Conflict over blocking the homesteaders?

Answer 50

-Ranchers used different tactics to block homesteaders from taking up claims on ranch-roamed public land. Tactics were: -Filed homestead claims as themselves to all the parts of the range that actual homesteaders were interested in. -Buying and fencing just enough land to block off access to other plots. -Taking homesteaders to court over rights to land, knowing that homesteaders were too poor to pay for court fees.

Question 51

How was property of land divided at the time?

Answer 51

Between public land and private railroad company land in a checkerboard pattern.

Question 52

Conflict over fencing?

Answer 52

-Farmers and ranchers argued over fencing when farming grew on the Plains. -Farmers said ranchers should fence their land to prevent open range cattle roaming on their crops. -Ranchers said roaming was their right, and that fencing was the responsibility of the farmer, and that they should not harm the cattle. -Arguments over fencing ended up in state court. Outside the courts, tension between homesteaders and ranchers was very common, sometimes turning into open conflict. -It led to a war in range, both sides relied on public land for grazing. -Rivalry between ranchers and farmers led to range wars; both needed public land for grazing. Farmers used wire to fence off pasture, which was cut by the ranchers. The ranchers led raids, killing hundreds of sheep.

Question 53

What 4 things occurred as a result of the railroad?

Answer 53

-Disrupted buffalo herds -Increased settlement -Plains Indians move off railroad land to reservations -Led to buffalo extermination

Question 54

Discuss how the railroads disrupted buffalo herds.

Answer 54

-Railroads disrupted the buffalo migrations through settled areas due to the noise of the trains and fencing of the railroad tracks, preventing them from always being able to cross the reservations where hunted by IPOP, and so, they also contributed to the extermination of the buffalo.

Question 55

How did the railroads increase settlement?

Answer 55

Railroads were funded by land grants that the railroad companies sold to settlers, they encouraged Plains settlement and increased competition for land and resources.

Question 56

How did railroads affect the IPOP?

Answer 56

Government persuaded tribes to give up lands along the railroad routes and move to the reservations.

Question 57

How did railroads lead to buffalo extermination?

Answer 57

-Plain settlers began to hunt buffalo, with "hunting trains" established, where tourists could shoot buffalo in large numbers from the safety of carriages -Buffalo were therefore killed, and were also used as a meat source for some railroad builders

Question 58

What conflict was created due to the cattle industry?

Answer 58

Cattle farmers and IPOP, due to further reduction caused in buffalo herds that IPOP relied in

Question 59

What were the impacts of the cattle industry?

Answer 59

-Cattle and buffalo competed for the same grass, so, as the number of cattle increased, buffalo herds were pressurised due to competition, and so were reduced to an inadequate food supply for some. Number of cattle increased in the West due to open -range farming from 130,000 in 1860 to 4.5 million by 1880. -Cattle drives north from Texas also often crossed IPOP lands formally allocated by government by treaty, In Indian Territory, some tribes allowed this to occur for compensation, but in the Southwest, the Comanche tribe did not allow it, leading to attacks on cowboys, with increased tensions and US army retaliation attacks.

Question 60

1862?

Answer 60

Gold discovered in Montana

Question 61

Subsequent events due to this gold discovery?

Answer 61

Gold rush; -Prospectors, from east alongside those unsuccessful previously from Colorado, use new Bozeman trail, which crossed the hunting lands of the Lakota Sioux -They broke the first Fort Laramie Treaty to reach Montana -Tensions caused by the prospectors was the main driving force for Red Cloud's War, leading to the signing of the second Fort Laramie Treaty

Question 62

What was other gold rushes to note?

Answer 62

-Rocky Mountains, 1859

Question 63

Effect of the discovery of gold in the Rocky Mountains in 1859?

Answer 63

-Attracted 100,000 migrants to Colorado, who trespassed across reservations, built camps, and began to mine. -Some IPOP were attacked and pushed from gold fields on their own reservations by prospectors, meaning some IPOP attacked gold miners in response. -Some chiefs of the Cheyenne and Arapaho appealed for a peaceful resolution. -1861, Wise treaty signed by US government and 6 Cheyenne tribes and 4 Arapaho tribes, though majority of Cheyenne opposed the treaty due top its terms, believing that the US government were not rightful to order them, and did not trust their credibility anyway also.

Question 64

When did reservations begin on the Plains?

Answer 64

-They were a continuation of US government policy from 1851. -From then, the US government believed that the only way to eradicate violence between IPOP and the white settlers was by removing contact, and so it was a good way to segregate both groups alongside teaching tribes the way of white American culture, of farming and Christianity, to enforce them to eventually accept and practice their lifestyle.

Question 65

Reasons for how IPOP moved to reservations?

Answer 65

-Late 1860s existing government polices towards IPOP being disobeyed, settlers were not stopped from breaking the terms of the first Fort Laramie Treaty and some IPOP also rejected the treaty's terms as they had completely lost trust in the US government, leading to escalating conflict and bloodshed on plains -Expansion of white settlement had meant there was less land to hunt on and fewer animals for IPOP. -Government promised protection of IPOP land and regular food supplies. -IPOP desperate for food and so would sign treaties in order to get this food. -Some tribes supported the government for support against their tribal enemies. -US Army used forced to move IPOP to reservations and keep them there.

Question 66

Alternative view?

Answer 66

-Some, including US army's General Sherman, believed only way to deal with resistance was the extermination of the IPOP.

Question 67

Who began to implement reservations?

Answer 67

President of the USA in 1869, Ulysses S. Grant, who took a different approach to resolving conflict with IPOP, in what he dubbed the Indian Peace Policy.

Question 68

3 issues Grant solved in the Peace Policy?

Answer 68

-Fact that small reservations made it impossible for IPOP to survive on hunting, therefore becoming reliant on US government for food and lost their independence. -Agents who worked for US government's Bureau of Indian Affairs were often corrupt, using their position to cheat the IPOP out of money and goods that they should have received from the government. -Settlers and gold prospectors travelled through, farmed and mined land that was promised to the IPOP.

Question 69

Resolution to small reservation problem?

Answer 69

$2,000,000 invested to fund education programme that taught IPOP how to farm crops, read and write, and do simple maths. IPOP then could assimilate and succeed in US society.

Question 70

Grant's resolution to corrupt agents?

Answer 70

-He appointed agents with strong Christian faith, who, as devout holy people, trusted to be less likely to cheat the IPOP, and worked to convert them to Christianity. -Ely Parker, American IPOP, born Hasanoanda, was appointed Commissioner of Indian Affairs.

Question 71

Effect of Grant's peace policy?

Answer 71

Limited: -Many IPOP resisted the idea of assimilation, viewed to them as an attempt to destroy IPOP cultures. They believed that living like US citizens meant acceptance of a totally different view of the land and world, with many IPOP rejecting this offer. Big Eagle, Lakota Chief, summarised this opinion in an interview; 'The whites were always trying to make the Indians give up their life and live like white men, go to farming, work hard and do as they did, and the Indians did not know how to do that, and did not want to anyway. -Any IPOP who did not stay on reservation after Grant's policy were viewed as "hostile" and rightfully assailable by the US Army. -Ely Parker was forced to resign in 1871, after a believed racially motivated campaign against him. -Food distribution to IPOP via government agency stores continued to be of a very poor quality. -Grant's Peace policy ultimately failed to bring peace to the Plains and there was further conflict at the Battle of the Little Big Horn in 1876.

Question 72

First Fort Laramie Treaty?

Answer 72

-1851, agreed between US government and IPOP, establishing a precedent for restricting tribal lands, and promising the IPOP protection from white settlement entering their lands, something that the US government failed in doing.

Question 73

1862-72?

Answer 73

Many tensions between white settlers and IPOP, mainly due to continued rise of Plains settlement. Red Cloud's war an example of conflict between white army and IPOP. Caused when gold prospectors used Bozeman Trail to cross Lakota Sioux land.

Question 74

Resolution to this time of conflict?

Answer 74

At the conclusion of Red Cloud's war, US government and Lakota Sioux agree the second Fort Laramie Treaty in 1868, the majority, not all of the Sioux, agreed to move to the reservation created by the treaty.

Question 75

What were the terms of the treaty?

Answer 75

-Great Sioux Reservation set up for members of the Sioux tribe -Reservation included Black Hills, sacred area for tribe -US government agreed to make regular payments of food and clothing to tribe. -US government agreed to close the Bozeman Trail as well as three US forts built alongside it. -White settlers not allowed on Great Sioux Reservation.

Question 76

What led to conflicts in the 1860s between IPOP and white settlers?

Answer 76

IPOP nations faced huge challenges at time as promises of US treaty broken, with instead the nations facing food shortages and incursions (attack) by non-IPOPs. Despite risks, violent resistance increased into series of conflicts in US known as the "Indian Wars".

Question 77

Who was Little Crow?

Answer 77

A chief of the Santee Sioux, living on a reservation in Minnesota.

Question 78

What was the background into Little Crow's War?

Answer 78

-12,000 people of Santee nation moved to this reservation in Minnesota. -Tried to adapt of a life of farming, however, due to failure of crops, relied on government payments for survival. -1862, American Civil War delayed US government payment, with government agency store refusing to sell food on credit to reservation. -Santee faced starvation.

Question 79

What were the main events of Little Crow's war?

Answer 79

-August 1862, four young Santee men, return from unsuccessful hunt, having attacked and murdered five settlers. -Santee leader Little Crow, leads attack on government agency store, killing 20 men and capturing 10 women and children, stealing food and burning the buildings. -Troop of 45 soldiers sent to reservation ambushed, 21 killed. -Little Crow continues to lead raids on army forts and settlers' towns, though he was unable to rally other IPOP nations to unite with his cause. -7000 settlers approximately killed in series of attacks, with huge numbers of army reinforcements sent to quash insurgency of Santee.

Question 80

Conclusion of Little Crow's war?

Answer 80

-September 1862, evident that Santee could not continue their resistance without huge losses, Little Crow heads west with some followers. -October 1862, 2000 of those who remained on reservation either surrendered or had been captured. -Military court sentences 300 Santee men to death. President Abraham Lincoln reduces sentences of all but 38, meaning they were hung publicly in December 1862. -During the first winter after having been relocated to a new reservation, Crow Creek, its barren landscape with poor soil and contaminated water, 400 Santee died.

Question 81

Background of the Sand Creek Massacre.

Answer 81

-First Fort Laramie Treaty guaranteed tribal territories, however, after the gold rush to the Rocky Mountains in 1859, the land for both the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes were disturbed. -US government's Treaty of Fort Wise in 1861 moves both tribes to a reservation. -Many Cheyenne and Arapaho moved, though, some, mostly young warriors, refuse. -Moved Cheyenne and Arapaho aces starvation due to the severe lack of buffalo and because Sand Creek reservation unsuitable for growing crops. -Groups of Cheyenne and some of the young warriors who refused to move onto reservations begin to start raiding settlers' wagon trains and mining camps for food and resources.

Question 82

Main events of the Sand Creek Massacre.

Answer 82

-1864, after 3 years of raids, chief of Cheyenne, Black Kettle, tries to bring peace via negotiations with US government officials and US army. -Talks unsuccessful, though Black Kettle believed he had secured government protection for his people, leading 700 Cheyenne members to a camp at Sand Creek. -At daybreak on 29th November 1864, Colonel Chivington and 1,0000 Colorado volunteers surround Black Kettle's camp. -Cheyenne had no military defences against this surprise attack, they began to wave white flags to mark surrender, however still more than 150 IPOP massacred. -163 IPOP, including women and children, were massacred with their bodies subsequently mutilated.

Question 83

Conclusion of Sand Creek Massacre?

Answer 83

-News of massacre quickly spreads after Black Kettle and some others managed to escape, telling other tribes what had occurred. -US Senate Committee of Inquiry condemned Chivington, declaring that he "deliberately planned and executed a foul and dastardly (despicable) massacre." -Cheyenne, Arapaho and Lakota united in horror an retaliated with widespread attacks on ranches and settlements, killing many settler families. -Eventually, in late 1865, Government Peace Commission forces IPOP nations to end war and move to new reservation.

Question 84

Background of Red Cloud's war.

Answer 84

-Gold prospectors using Bozeman trail to access gold fields of Montana trespassed across Lakota lands, breaking the terms of the first Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851. -Government did nothing to prevent this from happening. -Some bands of Lakota, led by Red Cloud, began to attack some travellers on the trail

Question 85

Main events of Red Cloud's war.

Answer 85

-1866, US government begin peace talks with Lakota Sioux leader Red Cloud, offering gifts and promising the nation governmental protection in return for allowed access for white settlers on the Bozeman Trail. -However, at the same time, they ordered the construction of two more forts along the Bozeman trail on Lakota land. -When Red Cloud learned of this, he immediately ceased talks and began to attack the army=y. Although the Lakota and its allies had not been able to attack the forts, they did manage to trick a detachment of 80 men into leaving Fort Phil Kearney. -These men, led by Captain William Fetterman, were massacred by the Sioux, unusually during the winter, in an incident known as "Fetterman's Trap". -By surrounding the forts, Red Cloud ensured that no soldier could safely leave and no settler could use the Bozeman Trail. -Red Cloud managed to unite the Lakota, Arapaho and Cheyenne to fight alongside him throughout these winter months.

Question 86

Conclusion of Red Cloud's War.

Answer 86

-Government report advises that this type of situation 9Fetterman's trap) be avoided if they were to convince IPOP to move to reservations further west. -Red Cloud's war forced US government and army to admit defeat, forced to negotiate second Fort Laramie Treaty in 1868, in which they agreed to abandon the forts on the Bozeman trail. -When they left, the Lakota burned the forts to the ground -New reservation called Great Sioux Reservation also created by treaty. -Red Cloud promised never to lead his men in attack on white settlers ever again.