L1: Intro_M Flashcards
(231 cards)
1
Q
provide a framework that helps us understand the human body
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Anatomy and Physiology
2
Q
studies the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.
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Anatomy
3
Q
concerns the function of the body, in other words, how the body parts work and carry out their life sustaining activities.
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Physiology
4
Q
when we refer to body structures and physiological values (body temperature, heart rate, and the like), we will assume that we are talking about a healthy young reference man weighing about
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70 kilograms (kg)
5
Q
when we refer to body structures and physiological values (body temperature, heart rate, and the like), we will assume that we are talking about a healthy young reference woman weighing about
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57 kilograms (kg)
6
Q
is the study of large body structures visible to the naked eye, such as the heart, lungs, and kidneys.
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Gross or macroscopic anatomy
7
Q
the term ___ (from Greek, meaning “to cut apart”) relates most closely to gross anatomy because in such studies preserved animals or their organs are dissected (cut up) to be examined.
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anatomy
8
Q
Subdivision of Gross Anatomy; all the structures (muscles, bones, blood vessels, nerves, etc.) in a particular region of the body, such as the abdomen or leg, are examined at the same time.
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Regional Anatomy
9
Q
Subdivision of Gross Anatomy; body structure is studied system by system. For example, when studying the cardiovascular system, you would examine the heart and the blood vessels of the entire body.
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Systemic Anatomy
10
Q
Subdivisions of Gross Anatomy; the study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin surface.
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Surface Anatomy
11
Q
deals with structures too small to be seen with the naked eye.
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Microscopic Anatomy
12
Q
Subdivisions of Microscopic Anatomy which considers the cells of the body
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Cytology
13
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Subdivisions of Microscopic Anatomy which is the study of tissues
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Histology
14
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traces structural changes that occur throughout the life span.
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Developmental Anatomy
15
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a subdivision of developmental anatomy, concerns developmental changes that occur before birth.
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Embryology
16
Q
Branch of Anatomy that studies structural changes caused by disease.
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Pathological Anatomy
17
Q
Branch of Anatomy that studies internal structures as visualized by Xray images or specialized scanning procedures.
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Radiographic Anatomy
18
Q
feeling organs with your hands
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Palpation
19
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listening to organs with a stethoscope
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Auscultation
20
Q
Using ___, you can name its parts and describe how they are related
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Anatomical terminology
21
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Subdivision of Physiology that concerns kidney function and urine production.
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Renal physiology
22
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Subdivision of Physiology that explains the workings of the nervous system
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Neurophysiology
23
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Subdivision of Physiology that examines the operation of the heart and blood vessels.
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Cardiovascular physiology
24
Q
While ___ provides us with a static image of the body’s architecture, ___ reveals the body’s dynamic and animated workings.
A
anatomy; physiology
25
The concept which states that what a structure can do depends on its specific form.
Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function
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It is the simplest level of the structural hierarchy. At this level, atoms, tiny building blocks of matter, combine to form molecules such as water and proteins.
Chemical Level
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are the basic components of cells
Organelles
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smallest units of living things
Cells
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All cells share some common functions, but individual cells vary widely in size and shape, reflecting their unique functions in the body.
Cellular level
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The simplest living creatures are single cells, but in complex organisms such as human beings, the hierarchy continues on to the ___
Tissue level
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are groups of similar cells that have a common function
Tissues
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The four basic tissue types in the human body are
epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, connective tissue, and nervous tissue
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Type of tissue that covers the body surface and lines its cavities
Epithelial tissue
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Type of tissue that provides movement
Muscle tissue
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Type of tissue that supports and protects body organs.
Connective tissue
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Type of tissue that provides a means of rapid internal communication by transmitting electrical impulses.
Nervous tissue
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is a discrete structure composed of at least two tissue types (four is more common) that performs a specific function for the body.
organ
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At the ___, extremely complex functions become possible.
organ level
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Organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose make up an
organ system
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The highest level of organization is the ___, the living human being.
organism
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represents the sum total of all structural levels working together to keep us alive.
organismal level
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Takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and eliminates unabsorbed matter (feces)
Digestive system
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Takes in oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide
Respiratory system
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Via the blood, distributes oxygen and nutrients to all body cells and delivers wastes and carbon dioxide to disposal organs
Cardiovascular system
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Eliminates nitrogenous wastes and excess ions
Urinary system
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Protects the body as a whole from the external environment
Integumentary system
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Forms the external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors, and sweat and oil glands
Integumentary System
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Protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals.
Skeletal System
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Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Maintains posture, and produces heat.
Muscular System
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As the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands
Nervous System
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Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.
Endocrine System
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Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood.
Cardiovascular System
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Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body.
Lymphatic System
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Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. These exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
Respiratory System
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Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
Digestive System
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Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood.
Urinary System
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Overall function is production of offspring.
Male Reproductive System and Female Reproductive System
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produce sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract.
Testes
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produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus.
Ovaries
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___ of female breasts producemilk to nourish the newborn.
Mammary glands
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Every living organism must maintain its boundaries so that its internal environment (its inside) remains distinct from the external environment (its outside).
Maintaining Boundaries
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In single-celled organisms, the ___ is a limiting membrane that encloses its contents and lets in needed substances while restricting entry of potentially damaging or unnecessary substances.
external boundary
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All body cells are surrounded by a selectively permeable called
plasma membrane
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The plasma membrane separates the ___ inside cells from the ___ outside. Part of the extracellular fluid (blood plasma) is enclosed in blood vessels. The remainder, the ___, surrounds and bathes all of our cells
intracellular fluid; extracellular fluid; interstitial fluid
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This system is another important boundary that protects our internal organs from drying out (a fatal change), infection, and the damaging effects of heat, sunlight, and an unbelievable number of chemicals in the external environment.
Integumentary System
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includes the activities promoted by the muscular system, such as propelling ourselves from one place to another by running or swimming, and manipulating the external environment with our nimble fingers
Movement
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provides the bony framework that the muscles pull on as they work
Skeletal System
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also occurs when substances such as blood, foodstuffs, and urine are propelled through internal organs of the cardiovascular, digestive, and urinary systems, respectively.
Movement
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the muscle cell’s ability to move by shortening is more precisely called
Contractility
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is the ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment and then respond to them.
Responsiveness or excitability
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involuntarily pulling your hand away from the painful stimulus
withdrawal reflex
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Because nerve cells are highly excitable and communicate rapidly with each other via electrical impulses, the ___ is most involved with responsiveness
nervous system
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is the breaking down of ingested foodstuffs to simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood.
Digestion
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In a simple, one-celled organism such as an amoeba, the ___ itself is the “digestion factory,” but in the multicellular human body, the ___ performs this function for the entire body.
cell; digestive system
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is a broad term that includes all chemical reactions that occur within body cells.
Metabolism
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The process of breaking down substances into simpler building blocks
catabolism
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The process of synthesizing more complex substances from simpler building blocks and using nutrients and oxygen to produce ATP, the energy rich molecules that power cellular activities via cellular respiration
anabolism
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Metabolism is regulated largely by ___ secreted by endocrine system glands
hormones
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is the process of removing wastes from the body
Excretion or excreta
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occurs at the cellular and the organismal level. In cellular reproduction, the original cell divides, producing two identical daughter cells that may then be used for body growth or repair.
Reproduction
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The ___ is directly responsible for producing offspring, but its function is exquisitely regulated by hormones of the endocrine system
Reproductive System
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is an increase in size of a body part or the organism as a whole. It is usually accomplished by increasing the number of cells. However, individual cells also increase in size when not dividing.
Growth
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For true growth to occur, ___ must occur at a faster rate than destructive ones.
constructive activities
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These include nutrients (food), oxygen, water, and appropriate temperature and atmospheric pressure
survival needs
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taken in via the diet, contain the chemical substances used for energy and cell building.
Nutrients
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Most ___ foods are rich in carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals, whereas most ___ foods are richer in proteins and fats.
plant-derived; animals
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are the major energy fuel for body cells.
Carbohydrates
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are essential for building cell structures.
Proteins and to a lesser extent fats
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also provide a reserve of energy rich fuel.
Fats
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are required for the chemical reactions that go on in cells and for oxygen transport in the blood.
Selected minerals and vitamins
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helps to make bones hard and is required for blood clotting.
mineral calcium
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All the nutrients in the world are useless unless this is also available.
Oxygen
93
Because the chemical reactions that release energy from foods are ___ that require oxygen, human cells can survive for only a few minutes without oxygen.
Oxidative reactions
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Approximately ___% of the air we breathe is oxygen.
20
95
accounts for 50–60% of our body weight and is the single most abundant chemical substance in the body.
Water
96
It provides the watery environment necessary for chemical reactions and the fluid base for body secretions and excretions.
Water
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We obtain water from ingested ___ and ___. We lose it from the body by ___ from the lungs and skin and in body excretions.
foods and liquids; evaporation
98
If chemical reactions are to continue at lifesustaining rates, this must be maintained.
normal body temperature
99
As body temperature drops below 37°C (98.6°F), ___ reactions become slower and slower, and finally stop. When body temperature is too high, ___ reactions occur at a frantic pace and body systems stop functioning.
metabolic; chemical
100
is the force that air exerts on the surface of the body. Breathing and gas exchange in the lungs depend on this appropriately
Atmodpheric pressure
101
ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes continuously.
Homeostasis
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an American physiologist of the early twentieth century, spoke of the “wisdom of the body,” and he coined the word homeostasis
Walter Cannon
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it indicates a dynamic state of equilibrium, or a balance, in which internal conditions vary, but always within relatively narrow limits.
Homeostasis
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is the factor or event being regulated.
variable
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All homeostatic control mechanisms are processes involving at least three components that work together to regulate the variable
receptor, control center, and effector
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It is a sensor that monitors the environment. It responds to stimuli (changes) by sending information (input) along the afferent pathway to the second component, the control center.
Receptor
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is the level (or range of levels) at which a variable is to be maintained.
set point
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determines the set point, at which a variable is to be maintained. It analyzes the input it receives by comparing it to the set point and determines the appropriate response. Information (output) then flows from the control center along the efferent pathway to the third component, the effector.
control center
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Information approaching the control center
afferent
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Information that exits from the control center
efferent
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carries out the control center’s response to the stimulus. The results of the response then feed back to influence the effect of the stimulus, either reducing it so that the whole control process is shut off, or enhancing it so that the whole process continues at an even faster rate.
effector
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Most homeostatic control mechanisms are
Negative feedback mechanisms
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In these systems, the output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or reduces its intensity. These mechanisms cause the variable to change in a direction opposite to that of the initial change, returning it to its “ideal” value.
Negative feedback mechanisms
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The thermostat houses both the receptor and control center. In the human body, the thermostat is located in a part of the brain called ____ that operates in a similar fashion
hypothalamus
115
A good example of a hormonal negative feedback mechanism
control of blood sugar (glucose) by insulin
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As blood sugar rises, receptors in the body sense this change, and the ___ (the control center) secretes insulin into the blood. This change in turn prompts body cells to absorb more glucose, removing it from the bloodstream. As blood sugar falls, the stimulus for insulin release ends.
pancreas
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Aside from body temperature and blood sugar, other negative feedback mechanisms regulate heart rate, ___, the rate and depth of breathing, and ___
blood pressure; and blood levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and minerals.
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produces change in variable.
Stimulus
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detects change
Receptor
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Information sent along afferent pathway to control center
Input
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Information sent along efferent pathway to effector
Output
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___ of effector feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and returns variable to homeostatic level.
Response
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the initial response enhances the original stimulus so that further responses are even greater. This feedback mechanism is “positive” because the change that results proceeds in the same direction as the initial change, causing the variable to deviate further and further from its original value or range.
positive feedback mechanisms
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usually control infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustments.
positive feedback mechanisms
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Italian word that means to fall
cascades
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Because of these characteristics, positive feedback mechanisms are often referred to as ___ that amplify the original stimulus
cascades
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Two familiar examples of positive feedback mechanisms are
the enhancement of labor contractions during birth and blood clotting.
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a hypothalamic hormone, intensifies labor contractions during the birth of a baby
Oxytocin
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regulates formation of a platelet plug.
positive feedback mechanisms
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is a normal response to a break in the wall of a blood vessel and is an excellent example of an important body function controlled by positive feedback.
Blood clotting
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are likely to race out of control, so they are rarely used to promote the moment to moment wellbeing of the body.
positive feedback mechanisms
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The basic unit of structure and function in living organisms.
Cell
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Words/Terms that describe the position of one body part relative to another.
Directional Terms
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The stomach is ____ to the lungs;
Inferior
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While the lungs are ____ to the heart.
Lateral
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A dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic from the abdominal cavity.
Diaphragm
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The serous membrane of the cavity surrounding the lungs is called the ____.
Parietal Pleura
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In which abdominopelvic quadrant would pain from an appendicitis be felt?
Right Lower Quadrant
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This serous membrane lines the abdominal wall.
Parietal Peritoneum
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An imaging technique which uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of tissues and organs in the body.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
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The anatomical term for the hollow behind the knee is ____.
Popliteal
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In a negative feedback mechanism, a _____ monitors changes and sends input to a _____ where input is evaluated and output commands are sent to _____ that produces a response.
Receptor; control center; effector
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The maintenance of a relatively stable internal conditions despite changes that occur inside and outside of the body.
Homeostasis
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A form of a positive feedback mechanism in which the fetal distention of the cervix stimulates a series of neuroendocrine responses leading to oxytocin production.
Ferguson Reflex
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The anatomical term for the front region of the elbow is ____.
Antecubital
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The concept in HAP which states that “what a human structure can do depends on its specific form”.
Principle of Complementarity
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Homeostasis is so important that most disease can be regarded as a result of its disturbance, a condition called
Homeostatic Imbalance
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The anatomical reference point is a standard body position called the
Anatomical Position
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allow us to explain where one body structire is in relation to another
Directional Terms
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The two fundamental divisions of our body are
axial and appendicular
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which makes up the main axis of our body, includes the head, neck, and trunk
axial part
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consists of the appendages, or limbs, which are attached to the body’s axis.
appendicular part
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used to designate specific areas within these major body divisions
Regional Terms
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For anatomical studies, the body is often cut, or sectioned, along a flat surface called a
Plane
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is named for the plane along which it is cut.
Section
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is a vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts.
Sagittal Plane
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A sagittal plane that lies exactly in the midline is the
Median Plane or Midsagittal Plane
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All other sagittal planes, offset from the midline, are
Parasagitall Planes
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like sagittal planes, lie vertically. They divide the body into anterior and posterior parts
Frontal Plane or Coronal Plane
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runs horizontally from right to left, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts
Transverse or Horizontal Plane
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A transverse section is also called a
Cross Section
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are cuts made diagonally between the horizontal and the vertical planes.
Oblique Section
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[DT] Toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above
Superior (cranial)
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The head is ___ to the abdomen.
superior
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[DT] Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below
Inferior (caudal)
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The navel is ___ to the chin.
inferior
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[DT] Toward or at the front of the body; in front of
Anterior (ventral)
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The breastbone is ___ to the spine.
anterior
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[DT] Toward or at the back of the body; behind
Posterior (dorsal)
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The heart is ___ to the breastbone
posterior
171
[DT] Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of
Medial
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The heart is ___ to the arm
medial
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[DT] Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of
Lateral
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The arms are ___ to the chest
lateral
175
[DT] Between a more medial and a more lateral structure
Intermediate
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The collarbone is ___ between the breastbone and shoulder.
intermediate
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[DT] Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
Proximal
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The elbow is ___ to the wrist
proximal
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[DT] Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
Distal
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The knee is ___ to the thigh
distal
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[DT] Toward or at the body surface
Superficial (external)
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The skin is ___ to the skeletal muscles
superficial
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[DT] Away from the body surface; more internal
Deep (internal)
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The lungs are ___ to the skin.
deep
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which protects the fragile nervous system organs, has two subdivisions the cranial and vertebral or spinal cavity
Dorsal Body Cavity
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Subdivision of the Dorsal Body Cavity in the skull, encases the brain.
Cranial Cavity
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Subdivision of the Dorsal Body Cavity which runs within the bony vertebral column, encloses the delicate spinal cord.
Vertebral or Spinal Cavity
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Both the brain and the spinal cord are covered by membranes called
Meninges
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The more anterior and larger of the closed body cavities is the ___. It also has two major subdivisions: thoracic and abdominopelvic cavity.
Ventral Body Cavity
190
The ventral body cavity houses internal organs collectively called the
Viscera
191
The superior subdivision of the Ventral Body Cavity is surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest.
Thoracic Cavity
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The thoracic cavity is further subdivided into lateral ___ , each enveloping a lung, and the medial ___
Pleural Cavities; mediastinum
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The mediastinum contains the ____, which encloses the heart, and is also surrounds the remaining thoracic organs.
Pericardial Cavity
194
The thoracic cavity is separated from the more inferior ___ by the diaphragm, a domeshaped muscle important in breathing.
Abdominopelvic Cavity
195
The superior portion of the abdominopelvic cavity contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs.
Abdominal Cavity
196
The inferior part of the abdominopelvic cavity lies in the bony pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, some reproductive organs, and the rectum.
Pelvic Cavity
197
A ___ occurs when part of the stomach slides through the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity, allowing stomach acid to cause heartburn (which is actually irritation of the esophagus, not the heart).
hiatal hernia
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The walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organs it contains are covered by a thin, double layered membrane, the ___
serosa or serous membrane
199
The part of the membrane lining the cavity walls is called the
Parietal serosa
200
covering the organs in the cavity.
Visceral serosa
201
In the body, the serous membranes are separated not by air but by a thin layer of lubricating fluid, called ___ which is secreted by both membranes.
serous fluid
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Although there is a potential space between the two membranes, the barely present, slitlike ___ is filled with serous fluid.
serous cavity
203
___lines the pericardial cavity and folds back as the ____, which covers the heart
parietal pericardium; visceral pericardium
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___line the walls of the thoracic cavity, and the ___ cover the lungs
parietal pleura; visceral pleura
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___is associated with the walls of the abdominopelvic cavity, while the ___ covers most of the organs within that cavity.
parietal peritoneum; visceral peritoneum
206
inflammation of the pleurae
Pleurisy
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inflammation of the peritoneums
Peritonitis
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One of the nine regions, is the centermost region deep to and surrounding the umbilicus (navel)
Umbilical region
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One of the nine regions, is located superior to the umbilical region
Epigastric region
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One of the nine regions, is located inferior to the umbilical region
Pubic (Hypogastric) region
211
Part of the nine regions that are located lateral to the hypogastric region
Right and Left inguinal or iliac regions
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Part of the nine regions that lie lateral to the umbilical region
Right and Left lateral (lumbar) regions
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Part of the nine regions that lie lateral to the epigastric region and deep to the ribs
Right and Left hypochondriac regions
214
What are the 4 quadrants of the abdominopelvic cavity?
right upper quadrant (RUQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), and left lower quadrant (LLQ).
215
contains the teeth and tongue. This cavity is part of and continuous with the cavity of the digestive organs, which opens to the body exterior at the anus.
Oral and digestive cavity
216
Located within and posterior to the nose, the ___ is part of the respiratory system passageways.
Nasal Cavity
217
house the eyes and present them in an anterior position
Orbital Cavities
218
lie just medial to the eardrums. These cavities contain tiny bones that transmit sound vibrations to the hearing receptors in the inner ears.
Middle ear cavities
219
are joint cavities. They are enclosed within fibrous capsules that surround freely movable joints of the body (such as the elbow and knee joints).
Synovial Cavities
220
The correct sequence of levels forming the structural hierarchy is:
(a) organ, organ system, cellular, chemical, tissue, organismal
(b) chemical, cellular, tissue, organismal, organ, organ system
(c) chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal
(d) organismal, organ system, organ, tissue, cellular, chemical
(c) chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal
221
The structural and functional unit of life is (a) a cell, (b) an organ, (c) the organism, (d) a molecule.
(a) a cell
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Which of the following is a major functional characteristic of all organisms? (a) movement, (b) growth, (c) metabolism, (d) responsiveness, (e) all of these.
(e) all of these
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An increased rate of breathing as a result of an increased buildup of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream would be best described as an example of which of the following? (a) maintaining boundaries, (b) excretion of metabolic waste, (c) responsiveness, (d) metabolism.
b) excretion of metabolic waste
224
In (a)–(e), a directional term [e.g., distal in (a)] is followed by terms indicating different body structures or locations (e.g., the elbow/the wrist). In each case, choose the structure or organ that matches the given directional term.
(a) distal: the elbow/the wrist
(b) lateral: the hip bone/the umbilicus
(c) superior: the nose/the chin
(d) anterior: the toes/the heel
(e) superficial: the scalp/the skull
(a) wrist, (b) hip bone, (c) nose, (d) toes, (e) scalp
225
The diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity from the (a) abdominopelvic cavity, (b) dorsal cavity, (c) ventral cavity.
(a) abdominopelvic cavity
226
Terms that apply to the backside of the body in the anatomical position include:
(a) ventral; anterior
(b) back; rear
(c) posterior; dorsal
(d) medial; lateral
(c) posterior; dorsal
227
According to the principle of complementarity, how does anatomy relate to physiology?
Function (physiology) reflects structure (anatomy); structure will determine and/or influence function.
228
List and describe briefly five external factors that must be present or provided to sustain life.
Five survival factors are: (1) nutrients—the chemical substances used for energy and cell building; (2) oxygen—used in the reactions that produce cellular energy; (3) water—the liquid environment necessary for all chemical reactions (4) body temperature— to maintain the proper temperature for chemical reactions to proceed; and (5) atmospheric pressure—to allow gas exchange to occur.
229
Define homeostasis.
Homeostasis is the ability to maintain internal conditions within a narrow set of limits, even in the face of continuous change in the outside world.
230
Why is anatomical terminology necessary?
Anatomical terms are precise words that have limited usage, which prevents confusion when describing the location of body parts.
231
Which body region is referred to when each of the following anatomical terms is used? (a) tarsal, (b) occipital, (c) sural, (d) mental, (e) coxal.
(a) ankle, (b) back of head, (c) calf, (d) chin, (e)hip.
