L12: CRITICAL THINKING IN RESEARCH

Question 1

What does critical thinking mean in research?

Answer 1

Questions – What are your hypotheses?
Data – How will you collect it?
Measures – Are your tools valid and reliable?
Conclusions – Are your findings strong and supported?

Question 2

What’s the difference between causal and predictive hypotheses?

Answer 2

Causal: “If I change X, Y will change.” The researcher controls the cause.
Predictive: Predicts a relationship, but doesn’t control variables. “These groups respond differently.”

Question 3

What is a quasi-experiment?

Answer 3

A study without full experimental control.

Question 4

What’s missing in a quasi-experiment?

Answer 4

Random assignment

Question 5

When is a quasi-experiment used?

Answer 5

When random assignment isn’t possible, ethical, or practical

Question 6

Can quasi-experiments show causality

Answer 6

They can suggest it, but not prove it fully

Question 7

A psychologist compares academic performance between students who voluntarily enrolled in a mindfulness course and those who did not.

What is the research design in this study scenario?

Answer 7

Quasi - experimental
You can strengthen the design using random assignments and measure pre-test academic performances. Before the course

Question 8

What is a key issue with this design? On the scenario

Answer 8

It’s a quasi-experiment because there is no random assignment to groups.

Question 9

What are potential confounding variables in this design? - quasi - experimental

Answer 9

Self-selection bias (students who choose mindfulness may be more motivated)
Baseline academic ability
Mental health or stress levels
Time availability
Interest in self-improvement

Question 10

Why is self-selection a problem?

Answer 10

Because the students who choose mindfulness might already differ in ways that affect academic performance, making it hard to tell if mindfulness caused any effect.

Question 11

What is the most common type of quasi-experimental design?

Answer 11

A non-equivalent control group design

Question 12

What does a non-equivalent control group design include?

Answer 12

An experimental group
A control group
No random assignment of participants

Question 13

What’s the main problem with this design - non-equivalent control groups?

Answer 13

We don’t know if the groups were equivalent on key variables (like the IV) before the treatment.

Question 14

Why is lack of random assignment a concern?

Answer 14

Because it increases the risk of pre-existing differences between groups influencing the results

Question 15

What are the key features of a True Experiment?

Answer 15

Start with equal groups (random assignment)
Vary one factor (the independent variable)
Measure and compare the outcome (dependent variable)
Differences in the DV are caused by the IV

Question 16

What’s a typical conclusion from a True Experiment?

Answer 16

The different levels of the IV caused different performance on the DV.

Question 17

What are the key features of a Quasi-Experiment?

Answer 17

Groups are divided based on one factor (no random assignment)
Groups are not equal at the start
Measure and compare the outcome variable
Causality is less certain

Question 18

What’s a typical conclusion from a Quasi-Experiment?

Answer 18

“The groups performed differently on the outcome measure,” but causality can’t be confirmed.

Question 19

What are designs without a control group?

Answer 19

Interrupted time series and A-B design.

A-B design applies interrupted time series to a single participant.

They risk confounding from time, season, or other coincidental changes.

Question 20

What is an Interrupted Time Series design?

Answer 20

It measures a behavior or outcome repeatedly over time before and after an event or intervention to see if there was a change. It doesn’t have a control group.

Question 21

What is an A-B design?

Answer 21

It’s a simple study of one person where you measure before (A) and after (B) an intervention to see if it made a difference. There’s no control group

Question 22

What are the problems with Repeated Treatment and A-B-A designs?

Answer 22

Treatment effects may not be reversible (e.g., learning can’t be “unlearned”).

Sometimes it’s unethical or unwanted to withdraw a beneficial treatment.

Question 23

What is a Cross-Sectional Study in developmental research?

Answer 23

It studies several groups of people of different ages all at the same time to compare development across ages.
It looks at same year but different ages of people

Question 24

What is a potential problem with Cross-Sectional Studies?

Answer 24

They may be confounded by cohort effects, meaning differences could be due to the groups’ shared experiences rather than age

Question 25

What is a cohort effect?

Answer 25

A cohort effect happens when differences between groups are caused by their unique experiences or time period they grew up in, not by age or development. For example, people who grew up during the internet age might think differently than those who didn’t, even if they’re the same age.

Question 26

What is a longitudinal study?

Answer 26

It studies the same group of people over time to observe changes

Question 27

What is a secular trend?

Answer 27

A change happening in the general population over time that can affect study results.

Question 28

What is a potential confound in longitudinal studies?

Answer 28

Secular trends can confuse whether changes are due to aging or general population shifts. So people born in 1980 they studied them each year to find how many used internet regularly

Question 29

What is a cross-sequential design?

Answer 29

It studies 2 or more cohorts at 2 or more times, testing the same ages across different years. So it goes diagonally and looks at different years but different ages as well so in 2000, people born in 1960 and then in 2010 people born in 1980

Question 30

Why use a cross-sequential design?

Answer 30

To help separate developmental effects, cohort effects, and secular trends.

Question 31

What are time lag effects?

Answer 31

Differences that come from comparing people of the same age but tested in different years.

Question 32

Task: Identify the design Impact of a Smoking Ban on Hospital Admissions •Study: Researchers track the number of hospital admissions for respiratory conditions monthly for 5 years before a public smoking ban is implemented. They continue tracking admissions for 5 years after the ban to assess changes A. True experimental design B. Interrupted time-series design C. Longitudinal design D. Naturalistic observation

Answer 32

Interrupted time serious design

Question 33

Task: Identify the confound Reading Comprehension in Aging Populations •A longitudinal study tracking reading comprehension in aging adults from 2000 to 2030 Which of the following best describes a secular trend that could affect this longitudinal research A. Individual differences in participant reading ability B. Age-related decline in processing speed C. An increase in digital reading changing reading habits D. Older readers are slower

Answer 33

c

Question 34

What is reproducibility in research

Answer 34

The ability to reproduce the method, data preparation, and statistical output of a study using the same data.

Question 35

What is replicability in research?

Answer 35

The ability to find the same effects when conducting a study with a new dataset.

Question 36

What is a conceptual replication in research?

Answer 36

A study that tests the same idea or theory as a previous study, but uses different methods or measures. It assumes the original effect exists and checks if the concept holds under varied conditions

Question 37

What is the importance of direct replication in research?

Answer 37

It confirms the reliability of a finding by repeating the exact same method and seeing if the same result is found, especially when done by independent labs

Question 38

What does the research say about bilingualism and age-related cognitive decline?

Answer 38

Some studies (e.g. Study A, Study C) show that bilinguals, especially early bilinguals, may have better executive function and brain activation linked to cognitive control. Others (e.g. Study B) found no difference in cognitive decline over time. Study D suggests that benefits depend on when bilingualism began—early bilinguals show more advantages than late bilinguals.

Question 39

What is a meta-analysis?

Answer 39

A meta-analysis combines results from many studies to get an overall picture of a research topic. It focuses on effect sizes rather than just statistical significance.

Question 40

A study that examines the effect of gender on cognitive functioning is an example of a: a) Non-equivalent control group design B) Repeated measures design C) True experiment D) Quasi-experiment

Answer 40

D