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5BBA2040 Psychology I > L3: Memory > Flashcards

L3: Memory Flashcards

1
Q

Describe Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) Multi-store Model of Memory (MSM)

A
  • involves three memory stores: sensory memory, STM & LTM
  • Information flows from sensory memory to STM through attention and rehearsal, and from STM to LTM through encoding and consolidation.
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2
Q

What was the method used in Sperling’s (1960) study on sensory memory?

A
  • Sperling used the partial report procedure, where participants were shown an array of letters and heard a tone that cued them to recall a specific row of letters.
  • Result: Participants could briefly recall more items from the cued row, suggesting the existence of iconic memory (visual sensory memory).
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3
Q

What is iconic memory?

A
  • a type of sensory memory that retains visual information for a very brief duration, typically decaying in less than a second
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4
Q

What is echoic memory?

A
  • a type of sensory memory that involves auditory information. It retains auditory stimuli for a short period, usually decaying in about 5 seconds
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5
Q

What was the method used in Tulving & Thomson’s (1973) study on memory retrieval cues?

A
  • Tulving & Thomson examined retrieval cues by having participants learn word pairs and providing cues during recall.
    Result: Participants showed improved recall when provided with appropriate retrieval cues, suggesting the importance of context in memory retrieval.
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6
Q

What was the method used in Godden & Baddeley’s (1975) study on context-dependent memory?

A
  • Godden & Baddeley investigated context-dependent memory by having divers learn and recall words underwater or on land.
  • Result: Participants showed better recall when the encoding and retrieval contexts matched, demonstrating the influence of context on memory
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7
Q

What was the focus of Brown & Kulik’s (1977) study on flashbulb memory?

A
  • Brown & Kulik explored flashbulb memory, which refers to vivid and emotionally charged memories of significant events.
  • Result: They found that flashbulb memories were well-preserved over time and associated with strong emotions
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8
Q

How did Loftus & Palmer (1974) examine the influence of leading questions on memory recall?

A
  • Loftus & Palmer presented participants with videos of car accidents and asked about the car’s speed using different verbs.
  • Result: The wording of the question affected participants’ estimates of the car’s speed, demonstrating the reconstructive nature of memory
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9
Q

What did Wells et al. (1998) study on eyewitness misidentification reveal?

A
  • Wells et al. investigated the unreliability of eyewitness memory in legal contexts.
  • Result: The research highlighted the significance of eyewitness misidentification in wrongful convictions
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10
Q

What did Nader et al. (2000) discover in their study on memory reconsolidation?

A
  • Nader et al. investigated memory reconsolidation in rats by retrieving and updating memories.
  • Result: The study showed that memories become temporarily unstable during retrieval and can be updated before reconsolidation
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11
Q

What aspect of memory encoding did Craik et al. (1996) examine in their study?

A
  • Craik et al. examined memory encoding in older adults, focusing on the level of attention during encoding.
  • Result: Older adults’ memory performance was influenced by the level of attention they paid to information during encoding
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12
Q

What phenomenon did Glanzer & Cunitz (1966) explore in their memory study?

A
  • Glanzer & Cunitz explored the serial position effect by presenting participants with a list of words.
  • Result: Participants were more likely to remember words presented at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of the list.
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13
Q

What aspect of memory did Underwood (1957) study in his research?

A
  • Underwood’s study on proactive interference had participants learn multiple lists of words.
  • Result: Participants’ recall of newly learned information was affected by interference from previously learned information
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14
Q

What are the key elements of memory?

A
  • Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval.
  • Atkinson & Shiffrin’s (1968) model of memory, known as the “multi-store model,” proposes that memory involves three main components: sensory memory, STM & LTM
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15
Q

How does memory encoding work?

A
  • involves the process of converting sensory information into a form that can be stored in memory
  • Atkinson & Shiffrin’s model suggests that info from the sensory registers enters short-term memory through attention, where it is processed further
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16
Q

What is iconic memory, and how long does it typically last?

A
  • Iconic memory is a type of sensory memory that pertains to visual information.
  • It retains visual stimuli for a very brief duration, usually decaying in less than a second.
  • Sperling (1960) conducted a classic study on iconic memory using a partial report procedure.
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17
Q

What is echoic memory, and how long does it typically last?

A
  • Echoic memory is a type of sensory memory that involves auditory information.
  • It retains auditory stimuli for a short period, usually decaying in about 5 seconds.
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18
Q

How is memory retrieval affected by context and cues?

A
  • Memory retrieval can be influenced by the context in which the information was encoded and the presence of cues that trigger associations with the stored memory.
  • Tulving and Thomson (1973) demonstrated the importance of retrieval cues in accessing specific information from memory
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19
Q

What is the role of the central executive in Baddeley’s working memory model?

A
  • The central executive is an attentional system that coordinates and controls plans of action and output
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20
Q

What is the function of the visuospatial sketchpad in working memory?

A
  • The visuospatial sketchpad briefly stores visual and spatial information for further manipulation
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21
Q

What does the phonological loop handle in Baddeley’s working memory model?

A
  • The phonological loop allows for saying the information back to yourself (articulatory rehearsal) and handles auditory information
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22
Q

What is the purpose of the episodic buffer in working memory?

A
  • is a temporary storage space where information from long-term memory can be integrated into working memory
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23
Q

What is the role of the hippocampus in memory?

A
  • s crucial for memory formation and consolidation
  • It helps transfer information from short-term memory to long-term memory.
  • Studies on patients with hippocampal damage, such as patient H.M. (Scoville & Milner, 1957), have provided significant insights into the role of the hippocampus in memory
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24
Q

How does the process of memory storage work?

A
  • involves maintaining encoded information over time. According to Atkinson & Shiffrin’s model, information can be transferred from STM to LTM through rehearsal
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25
Q

What is sensory memory?

A
  • the brief retention of sensory information in its original sensory form (e.g., visual, auditory) before it is processed further
  • sperling (1960) conducted a study on the capacity and duration of sensory memory using the whole report and partial report procedures
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26
Q

How does elaborative rehearsal aid memory encoding?

A
  • involves connecting new information to existing knowledge, which enhances memory encoding & promotes better retention.
  • Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed the levels of processing theory, which emphasizes the role of deep processing in memory
27
Q

What is the role of retrieval cues in memory?

A
  • stimuli/info that help trigger recall of stored memories during the retrieval process
  • Godden and Baddeley (1975) demonstrated context-dependent memory using an underwater and on-land learning and recall task
28
Q

How can context-dependent memory affect recall?

A
  • suggests that information is better recalled when the retrieval context matches the encoding context.
  • This was illustrated in Godden and Baddeley’s (1975) study on scuba divers’ recall in different environments
29
Q

Describe the relationship between emotion and memory

A
  • emotionally charged events tend to be remembered more vividly & can influence memory retrieval and consolidation processes.
  • studies like the flashbulb memory research by Brown and Kulik (1977) have shown how emotionally significant events lead to highly detailed and persistent memories
30
Q

Explain the concept of state-dependent memory

A
  • suggests that memory retrieval is enhanced when the individual’s internal state during retrieval matches their internal state during encoding
  • Goodwin et al. (1969) conducted a study on state-dependent learning using the effects of alcohol on memory
31
Q

What are some factors that contribute to memory reconstruction?

A
  • can be influenced by personal biases, expectations, and the integration of new information into existing memories
  • Loftus and Palmer (1974) conducted a study on how leading questions can distort eyewitness memory
32
Q

How does the misinformation effect impact memory accuracy?

A
  • occurs when misleading information is presented after an event, leading to distortions or inaccuracies in the memory of that event
  • Loftus and Loftus (1980) conducted a study on how misleading post-event information can alter eyewitness memory
33
Q

Why is eyewitness memory often considered unreliable in legal contexts?

A
  • it’s susceptible to various memory distortions, making it unreliable in legal contexts where accuracy is crucial
  • Eyewitness misidentification has been a significant factor in wrongful convictions (Wells et al., 1998)
34
Q

How does the concept of memory reconsolidation explain memory updating?

A
  • suggests that when a memory is retrieved, it becomes temporarily unstable, allowing for potential updates/changes to the memory before being reconsolidated.
  • Nader et al. (2000) conducted a study on memory reconsolidation in rats
35
Q

Explain the relationship between attention and memory encoding

A
  • Paying attention to information helps enhance memory encoding by increasing the chances of the information being processed and transferred to long-term memory
  • Craik et al. (1996) conducted a study on attention and memory in older adults.
36
Q

How does the serial position effect impact memory retrieval?

A
  • The serial position effect shows that items presented at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list are more likely to be remembered than those in the middle
  • Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) conducted a study on the serial position effect
37
Q

Describe the concept of proactive interference in memory

A
  • occurs when old information hinders the recall of newly learned information. Underwood (1957) conducted a study on proactive interference in memory recall
38
Q

What is chunking in the context of memory?

A
  • involves combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held In STM
39
Q

What are schemas in memory?

A
  • mental models of the world that contain knowledge that helps us encode new info into a meaningful context
40
Q

How are memories constructed?

A
  • made by combining info we already have in our brain with new information that comes in
  • memory is constructed, not simply recorded
41
Q

What is visual imagery encoding?

A
  • a memory process that involves storing new information by converting it into mental pictures
42
Q

What did Wollen et al. (1972) discover in their study on encoding with interactions?

A
  • found that encoding with interactions results in better memory retention, even if the interactions are unusual
43
Q

What is the method of loci in memory?

A
  • a memory aid that associates info with mental images of locations. It involves taking a mental walk in a familiar place
44
Q

What is the encoding specificity principle?

A
  • states that a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps recreate the specific way in which information was initially encoded (Tulving & Thomson, 1973)
45
Q

What is state-dependent retrieval in memory?

A
  • refers to the tendency for info to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval
46
Q

What did Godden and Baddeley (1975) study in their research on divers’ memory?

A
  • investigated context-dependent memory by having divers learn and recall words underwater or on land
    -they found that participants showed better recall when the encoding and retrieval contexts matched
47
Q

What is transfer-appropriate processing (TAP) in memory?

A
  • refers to the idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when we process info in a way that is appropriate to the retrieval cues that will be available later
48
Q

What is explicit memory?

A
  • the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences
  • It includes semantic memory (general knowledge) and episodic memory (personal experiences)
49
Q

What is implicit memory?

A
  • the influence of past experiences on later behavior and performance, even though people are not trying to recollect them and are not aware that they are remembering them
  • includes procedural memory (skills) and priming (enhanced ability to think of a stimulus due to recent exposure)
50
Q

What is transience in memory?

A
  • refers to forgetting that occurs with the passage of time
  • memory changes from more specific to more general over time.
  • the forgotten curve shows that most forgetting happens soon after an event occurs, with increasingly less forgetting over time
51
Q

What is the forgotten curve, and who proposed it?

A
  • proposed by Ebbinghaus (1964)
  • shows memory doesn’t fade at a constant rate as time passes.
  • most forgetting happens soon after an event occurs, with increasingly less forgetting over time
  • not just about quantity but also about the quality of memory
52
Q

What is the serial position effect in memory?

A
  • refers to the enhanced memory for events presented at the beginning and end of a learning episode
  • the primacy effect is for items remembered better at the beginning, while the recency effect is for items remembered better at the end.
53
Q

What is prospect memory, and how does it differ from retrospective memory?

A
  • prospect memory involves remembering to do things in the future
  • retrospective memory is about recalling information learned in the past
  • key difference is “when” something needs to be remembered: prospect memory for what to do in the future, and retrospective memory for what has already happened.
54
Q

What are the two types of prospect memory, and what do they require?

A
  • event-based memory, which requires an action when an event occurs
  • time-based memory, which requires an action when a certain time or interval is reached
  • Both types require attention to monitor the passage of time.
55
Q

What is anterograde amnesia, and what is retrograde amnesia?

A
  • anterograde amnesia is the inability to transfer new info from STM to LTM
  • retrograde amnesia is the inability to retrieve information acquired before a specific date (usually due to an injury or operation)
  • the hippocampus is an index that links all the separate memory together
56
Q

What is source monitoring, and what is memory misattribution?

A
  • Source monitoring involves recalling when, where, and how information was acquired
  • Memory misattribution refers to assigning a recollection or idea to the wrong source.
57
Q

What are the three types of source monitoring?

A
  • internal, which involves thoughts about doing versus actually doing
  • external, which involves distinguishing between multiple external sources
  • reality, which involves distinguishing between actual events and imagined ones
58
Q

What is the déjà vu experience, and what is déjà vecu?

A
  • Déjà vu is the experience of feeling like you have been in a situation before, even though you can’t recall any details
  • Déjà vecu is a confabulated memory where the individual is certain that the new experience is old.
59
Q

What are false memories?

A

recollections of events that never happened

60
Q

What are memory biases, and what are the types of biases?

A
  • the distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences types of biases:
  • include consistency bias (altering the past to fit the present)
  • change bias (exaggerating differences between past and present)
  • egocentric bias (distorting the past to make us look better)
61
Q

What is suggestibility, and what are intrusion errors?

A
  • Suggestibility is the tendency to incorporate misleading info from external sources into personal recollections
  • Intrusion errors refer to falsely recalling details/events that were suggested or implied but did not occur
62
Q

What did Loftus et al. (1978) and Loftus (1993) discover in their studies on suggestibility?

A
  • Loftus et al. found that participants who received suggested questions recalled details that were not in a video, demonstrating the influence of suggestive questioning on memory
  • Loftus (1993) showed that vivid and detailed recollections could be generated by suggesting that individuals had once experienced events that did not happen, leading to false memories
63
Q

What are the “Seven Sins of Memory,” and who proposed them?

A
  • proposed by Schacter (2001)
  • transience
  • absent-mindedness
  • blocking
  • misattribution
  • suggestibility
  • bias
  • persistence.
  • they represent different ways in which memory can be distorted or fail

5BBA2040 Psychology I (10 decks)

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