L7: Emotion and Personality Flashcards
(59 cards)
1
Q
what is an emotion
A
A brief conscious experience associated with…
* Intense mental activity
* A high degree of pleasure/displeasure
* Physiological states which occur via activation of the autonomic nervous system (ANS)
* Physical responses (such as facial expressions, body posture and more)
2
Q
why do we have emotions? what is emotional regulation linked to?
A
- Adaptive and tied to specific behaviors
- The ability to control emotions (emotional regulation) is related to mental health and job performance
3
Q
why can emotions be preferred for decision making
A
there is a lack of time
…there is a lack of information …there are too many options …the options are ambiguous
- Without emotions, it’s likely you’d make WORSE decisions… or no decisions at all!
4
Q
how many emotions are there
A
- Ekman’s theory proposes six discrete emotions
- Anger, disgust, afraid, sad, happy, surprised
- Here, each emotion is tied to a different facial expression.
5
Q
what are secondary emotions (Plutchik)
A
8 core emotions (vs. 6 in Ekman’s model) in opposed pairs, creating secondary emotions via intersection.
these are hybrid emotions
like the emotion of bittersweetness is a hybrid of happiness and sadness
6
Q
recap what the autonomic nervous system is
A
- Involuntary effects
- Many structures receive input from both systems (sympathic - fight or flight, and parasympathic - rest or digest)
- this is because if we just measured emotions from one structure, like an emotion related to increased heart rate, many emotions have that so its not a distinctive characteristics
- The effects of SyNS + PaNS are different
7
Q
what are some nonverbal cues to emotions
A
- Facial expressions
- Body language
- Proximity
- Gestures
Nonverbal cues, with the exception of facial expression, may vary a lot depending upon culture (as is the case with emblems)
8
Q
how are facial expressions innate across cultures?
A
- Even tribes isolated from human contact make the same facial expressions to express similar feelings
- Individuals who are blind (who have never seen any facial expressions) make similar facial expressions
- Meaning is generally consistent across cultures (w/some variation)*
9
Q
how do facial expressions vary by culture
A
- Certain facial expressions (such as a smile) may have a different meaning in different cultures
in the west = smile = rewards or bonding
in the east = smile = dominance
- Display rules for emotion vary by culture; emotional suppression is evident in some cultures (e.g. Collectivist/Eastern) w/deference to authority
10
Q
what is the facial feedback hypothesis? explain the study and its implications
A
- an emotional state brings a facial expression
- but can this work in reverse?
- Yes!
- In an early study, people forced to smile – by holding a pen in their mouth – rated cartoons as funnier
- However, replication efforts failed, suggesting the effect of expressions on mood was weaker than expected
11
Q
what is the facial action coding system (FACS)
understand
A
- Taxonomize facial movements (w/codes)
- Combinations of movements associated w/emotions
- Understand facial movements, understand emotions (‘reading faces’)
12
Q
what is the RMET test
A
- ‘Reading Minds through The Eyes’ where you infer emotion from the eyes
- Females generally slightly outperform males
- People w/autism or other disorders may perform poorly
–> Atypical gender differences - Validity criticized recently
–> doesn’t predict any real world social behaviour – why is this useful?
13
Q
how does body language connect to emotion?
A
- Varies by emotional state and appears to be innate
- Results parallel those of facial expression
- Body language is similar in sighted + blind athletes
14
Q
explain cuddy’s initial research about body language and emotion
A
- He suggested that certain postures (power poses) changed risk-taking behavior, emotion + physiology
- In men, high power poses were linked to reduced cortisol + increased testosterone
*Though this study was intriguing, it has been difficult to replicate and has become controversial
- Effects on self-perception and emotion have been reliably replicated, but effects on physiology and risk- taking have not
–> In other words: there is still an effect of power poses, but it is potentially much weaker than originally thought - This situation (and that of the facial feedback hypothesis) reminds us why replication is vital
15
Q
what is the common sense view of where emotional states come from?
A
idea that we get an emotion from viewing the stimulus
ie. perceiving the bear (brain role) –> feeling of fear –> physiological reactions (ANS role – effect on many of the body’s organs)
16
Q
what are the other three and more correct view of emotional state orgins?
A
James-Lange Theory
event –> arousal –> interpretation (of only arousal) –> emotion
Cannon-Bard Theory
event –> arousal, emotion (you get emotion and arousal at the same time but they occur via distinct pathways. ex. you can get emotion without arousal or arousal without emotion – unlikely to effect each other)
Schachter Singer’s Two-Factor Theory
event –> arousal –> cognitive labels (label arousal and label event – in James-Lange we only label arousal, here we label both) –> emotions
what are cognitive labels
- consider two factors; personal state and the event: my heart is beating fast, and i see a large bear
17
Q
what are the problems with each of the three theories of the origin of emotion?
what is misattribution?
A
James Lange Theory
- expect: emotions have distinguishable physiological states
- reality: this is untrue, loads of emotions have similar physiological states. thus emotional state cannot be the direct result of interpreting physiology, there has to be more.
Cannon-Bard theory
- expect: emotion is cortical in origin and separate from physiological arousal
- reality: emotions are blunted when the capacity for physiological changes is reduced (as in spinal cord injury)
–> if physiology is disrupted we already know emotion is too. for instance if we had a spinal cord injury there will be many effects on emotional state, thus suggesting physiology matters.
Schachter-SInger theory
- expect: interpretation of the event is key
- reality: However, we’re not always aware of what the key event is
(misattribution is common – someone not being aware of the arousal of their current emotional state)
18
Q
what is the role of cognition in the interpretation of emotional states? what is the therapy and effect associated with this?
A
- cognition helps the interpretation of emotional states and is key and may change with experience
- Cognitive-behavioral therapies for anxiety and depression, for example, involve teaching people new cognitive approaches to emotions (see L09)
- Misattribution is also a concern
19
Q
what is the modern view of emotional states?
A
Emotion is a product of complex, reciprocal influences of the brain, nervous system and perception on each other
cyclic not linear
20
Q
what are the two ways we might make decisions based on
A
1) how we feel now (Incidental emotion)
2) how we think we’ll feel (Integral emotion)
21
Q
incidental emotion: how does emotion influence purchasing?
A
- Effects of different emotions of the same valence (negative) was examined in realtion to buying and selling price
- an emotional state was induced and then the person was asked what price they would buy a new item or sell an item they have
- Disgust lowers buy + sell values, particularly sell (sell something for cheaper)
- Sadness lowers sell but increases buy values (buy something more expensive)
- Emotions of the same valence have different effects
22
Q
explain integral emotion
impact bias and loss aversion
A
- When we predict our future emotional states, we often overestimate intensity + duration (impact bias)
- Overestimation of the potential emotional impact of losses is particularly great, leading to loss aversion
- they aren’t as happy or sad as they forecasted = loss aversion
23
Q
why do we lie? (10)
according to paul ekman
A
- Avoid punishment
- Avoid embarrassment
- Maintain privacy
- Obtain a reward otherwise unobtainable
- Win admiration
- Protect another person
- Protect oneself from physical harm
- Escape a social situation
- Exercise power
24
Q
is lying advantageous in the workforce
A
Jobs oriented towards selling tend to view the ability to deceive as a sign of competence
- salespersons, advertisers, travel agent
25
how often do we lie? does it vary with a certain group of people?
* One study found an average of two lies per day, but most people either never lied (60%) or rarely lied (25%)
* The majority of lies in the study (and likely the real world) are told by a small group of individuals who are prolific liars
* Individual differences matter; lying tends to be highest in young men (particularly adolescents)
26
who can detect a lie?
Meta-analysis has indicated that most of us are not much better than chance (average = 55%)
- teachers, social workers, criminals are better at detecting lies
* Lie detection is unrelated to confidence, age, sex, experience or education
27
is lying detected by polygraph tests?
- a polygraph graph measures physiological changes that are linked to deception
* Lying is associated with physiological changes, which can be measured using a polygraph
* At best, 80 – 88% accuracy (risk of false positives)
--> Physiological responses when aroused, even if not lying
--> Not viewed favorably by the legal community
- arousal can also occur when your scared, so not accurate and distinctive to only lying
28
what is motivation? use the example of eating and tie it to two theories relating to motivation
* Defn: Refers to our drives (i.e. needs and wants) that push us in a certain direction (i.e. behave in a certain way)
* According to **drive reduction (DR) theories**, drives exist to reduce an imbalance/fill a need
--> We are motivated to eat because we are low on nutrients and/or body fat
* According to **incentive value theories (IV)**, drives exist because they lead us to reward (usually pleasure)
--> We are driven to eat because eating is fun
29
what are two examples of DR theories?
* Glucostatic theory
--> Eating/hunger to maintain energy reserves (e.g. blood glucose)
* Lipostatic theory
--> Eating/hunger to maintain bodyweight (e.g. adipose tissue)
both theories have strengths and weaknesses
30
describe the incentive value theory (IV) of eating. what is another reason on why we eat? what is a key problem?
* Eating, like sexual behavior, is not guided solely by deficits but by **cravings**
* Consumption of nutrients activates the reward centers of the brain (eating is **pleasurable**)
* Humans have a strong innate preference for sweet, fatty and salty foods (calorically dense)
--> Avoid bitter foods (toxicity?)
* A key problem: no mineral cravings
--> Minerals are valuable, but have no ‘taste’ associated with them and we’re not driven to consume them
31
what is approach and avoidance theory
when social anxiety stops us from doing something we desire
- benefits are weighed against the risks
a choice must be made about whether to pursue a single goal that has both attractive and unattractive aspects
32
what are Maslow's hierarchy of needs (5)
up the triangle:
physiological needs -> safety needs -> love and belonging -> esteem -> self actualization
33
what is personality - defn
An enduring pattern of thinking, feeling and behaving.
34
what is freuds psychoanalytic theory (3)
**Psychic determinism**
* Events have a cause
**Symbolic meaning**
* No action is meaningless
* Actions may represent another desire (e.g. Freudian slips)
* Wish fulfilment in dreams
**Unconscious motivation**
* We rarely understand why we do what we do
35
explain freud's iceberg model
**Ego**
- operates majority in consious but partly in the unconsious level
- executive that mediates between id impluses and superego inhibitions
- testing reality = rational
**Superego**
- operates in mainly preconsious level, but some in the unconsious level
- ideals and morals = strive for perfection
- from parents
**ID**
- operates at unconsious level
- basic impluses (sex and aggression) seeking immediate gratification - irrational and impulsive
36
explain the defense mechanism of the ego
* The defense mechanism of the ego employs various defense mechanisms to protect the individual from experiencing anxiety or distress arising from conflicts between the id and superego
* Can improve psychological health if used properly
* Can be unhealthy if used extensively or in the wrong situations
* Many different defenses
--> Repression, Denial, Regression, Projection/Displacement, Reaction-formation, Rationalization, Intellectualization and Sublimation
* Some of these defense mechanisms have since been disputed (repression) whereas others are more widely accepted (denial)
37
what are some criticisms of freuds iceberg model (4)
* External validity/generalizability concerns
--> Based on an small, unrepresentative sample
* Many theories untestable and therefore unfalsifiable
* Low predictive power
--> Theories not useful in predicting behavior
* Overestimation of the role of the shared environment
-->Behavior Genetics research suggests influenc e of shared environment is very weak
- Most of these criticisms apply to all psychoanalytic theories.
38
what is the radical behaviouristic perspective
* Behavior is determined by reinforcement/ punishment
* Related idea is social learning theory (e.g. observation of parents)
* These theories conflict with the limited evidence for environment influencing personality
39
what is the humanist theory and its problems?
* Drive to achieve self-actualization (“be all that we can be”)
* Problems arise from failing to meet our conditions of worth
* Fails to accommodate negative/harmful behaviors (e.g. aggression) and is also difficult to falsify
40
what are personality traits, how are they tested, are they favoured in literature, what area do perosnality tests test?
* Personality traits are stable units of personality
* Personality traits are conceptual variables that we measure by personality tests
* Trait models of personality are testable and therefore falsifiable (in contrast to all other earlier theories)
--> For this reason, they are strongly favored in the literature
* Though much of personality may be unconscious, most personality tests only examine our conscious experiences (another difference from earlier theories)
41
How can we measure certain personality traits? The two steps? what is a correlational matrix?
We ask multiple questions that help us understand how strongly someone is correlated to **one** trait.
- this is called a **factor analysis** which essentially measures the intensity of a certain **personality trait or factor** by asking muliple questions targetting one trait
First, we ask many questions on personality.
Next, we use the pattern of answers to generate a small, meaningful amount of personality factors.
matrix:
When Q5-8 are often strongly correlated with each other, but are less correlated with answers to Q1-4.
42
if we were to measure extroversion and consciousness what would we see
- a correlational matrix
- two sources of variance
- Q1-4 represent one trait whereas Q5-8 a different trait.
43
what are the five factors in the five factor model of personality (FFM)
* Openness to Experience (Novelty-Seeking)
* Conscientiousness
* Extraversion
* Agreeableness
* Neuroticism* (overlaps w/Stability)
44
is the FFM a binary classification
No
FFM traits lie on a continuum - each factor has an opposite
45
how are personality traits (FFM) used as a predictor (job performance, leadership, family size, stability)
* **High C,** low N + high A predicts strong job performance
* O is positively correlated and A is negatively correlated with perceived leadership ability
* O is negatively correlated with family size (reduced reproductive fitness?)
* We tend to **overestimate** the stability of traits in others and **underestimate** the stability of our own traits
--> note that both self + observer reports inaccurate, though observer reports are less inaccurate
46
how is personality genetical? relate one to FFM and say general spec of personality traits
(3)
* openness and consciousness runs the most in families
* Intelligence runs in families and increases by heredity as age increases.
* social attitudes like religiosity and political stance are not very heritable.
* For most personality traits, the h^2 (fraction of phenotipic traits via genetics) = is 0.4 – 0.55
47
Reproductive fitness: how extreme is the heritability of traits seen in the FFM
* Trade-offs exist: traits valuable in one context may be problematic in another
* For this reason, it is unlikely that there will be aggressive selection for extreme values of any trait
48
how is assortative mating seen via personality typically in marriages
* neuroticism, openness, and agreeableness are correlated between the two partners in the relationship
- there is some correspondence
49
how is personality changing with aging (FFM changes as you get older, desire to change, drugs?)
* With aging (16 to 60 years) there are increases in A + C, decreases in E + O
* Younger individuals show strong interest in changing personality (e.g. become more extroverted, open to experience...)
- Volitional personality change (of will power, goal setting etc) is possible but limited
- W/age, the desire to change personality **decreases**, as does the **magnitude** of change desired
- Certain drugs, such as psilocybin and paxil, are associated w/ small personality trait changes
50
how is personality changing with cultural differences
(what is an example of an extra factor in a certain culture that may effect personality changes,
are personality traits predictive of behaviour in all cultures)
* Openness does not always emerge clearly
* Some cultures, such as Chinese culture, may have additional factors (i.e. Traditional Factors)
--> Emphasis on harmony
* Traits less predictive of behavior in collectivist cultures
--> Perhaps due to emphasis on conformity to social norms
* Avoid stereotyping; plenty of individual exceptions
--> Not everyone has a personality consistent with their culture
--> Not all Western cultures equally individualistic, not all Asian cultures equally collectivist
51
What are alternatives to the big five personality traits
**HEXACO model (Big Six?)**
* Includes honesty-humility
* Redefines neuroticism as emotionality
* Extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness + openness remain
**The Big Three**
* Collapses Agreeableness, Conscientiousness and Low Openness into a single trait (Impulse Control/Fearfulness)
* Extroversion and Neuroticism remain
**Two dimensions?**
* Extroversion (dominance) and agreeableness (love)
* * Wiggin’s proposal is innovative, but not favored
52
what are the heritability of traits such as religiosity and conservatism
* h2 of religiosity (0.3 – 0.45) and conservatism (0.50 – 0.65) increases with age
* While religiosity is heritable, preference for a specific religious style is not (near zero)
53
what is the MMPI test (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)
* Used to assess **psychopathology** (study of mental disorders) in adults
* One of the most commonly administered and intensively researched tests
* 500+ items across multiple scales, questions were selected based on their ability to differentiate healthy controls from those people with a disorder
54
how does the MMPI use validity scales and what are these?
* Understandably, people who are taking a personality test may sometimes misstate, **exaggerate or even completely falsify information**
* The MMPI has a useful feature to encourage authentic responses: **people cannot tell what the questions are asking, so they cannot easily fake answers**
--> “Do you think children look like little monkeys?” Is assessing your nurturance, but few people know this
* The MMPI has built-in mechanisms to detect abnormal patterns of responding, termed validity scales
55
what is the average score for MMPI
50 is an average score
56
what are some theories and tests for personality (list them) and what should we consider when looking at these theories?
1. Graphology -- analysis of handwriting for personality
2. Body Type (as in Sheldon's Body Theory) -- analysis of body type for personality
3. Phrenology and Physiognomy -- analyzing personality via skull shape and facial features/expressions
--> Even though facial features are not strongly correlated with traits, we still judge people’s traits by their facial features anyway.
note: Some of these tests have been hugely popular, but most either are a) of limited utility in special contexts only and/or b) completely unsupported by evidence.
57
What is the myers-briggs type indicator test (MBTI)?
4 dimensions?
use?
major criticism?
* Several dimensions:
--> Introversion versus Extraversion (I v E)
--> Sensation versus Intuition (S v N)
--> Thinking versus Feeling (T v F)
--> Judging versus Perceiving (J v P)
* Extremely popular, particularly in business circles, administered millions of times a year
* Criticized for **uncertain validity (lower than FFM)** (does the test even work properly)
--> Different result each time
--> Does not predict the job you’ll get
58
what are projective tests? what is wrong with these tests though?
* Much of personality may be unconscious
* **Projective personality tests** are designed to reveal unconscious processes by having people ‘project’ them on to the tests
**--> Rorschach Inkblot Test** (ink blots - what do you see)
--> **Thematic Apperception test** (given photos and asked question/to make a story)
--> **Draw-A-Person test** (asked to draw a specific photo of someone to reveal information about self esteem)
* Unfortunately, these tests have low **construct validity** (is it really measuring what it says it will?)
59
what is the barnum effect?
* Defn: Tendency to believe that descriptions are specific to them even though they could describe almost anyone
* Explains our attraction to horoscopes, fortune-telling, tarot card reading + non-standardized personality tests
* Sensitivity to the effect is related to favorability of the judgment + other variables
