L5: Learning and Memory Flashcards

Question

how is extinction used in therapy? aka exposure therapy

Answer 1

* In phobias and other disorders, we sometimes have clear triggers for episodes of anxiety/fear * These reactions may have been acquired through experience and may be suppressed by experience too * Repeated exposure to these triggers over time in a safe environment may diminish the expressed fear (exposure therapy) - this is behaviourist principles in action

Answer 2

Operant conditioning is when the frequency of a behavior (R) is controlled by its consequences (S) * In classical conditioning, we are concerned primarily with S-S associations * However, stimuli (S) may also be associated with behavioral responses (R) (S – R associations) * R associated w/positive stimuli (S+) are performed frequently * R associated w/negative stimuli (S-) are performed rarely

Answer 3

in classical: - the behaviour is elicited automatically - involves the autonomic nervous system operant: - voluntarily emitted - involves skeletal muscles * Though we consider OC and CC separately, there are many situations where both might occur * For example, the development of phobias (CC) might be followed by the avoidance of phobic stimuli to preserve mood (OC)

Answer 4

the most common behaviours are the ones with positive consequences. aka (Thorndike’s Law of Effect) ex. - a cat is trapped in a puzzle box and it wants to escape. - it will engage with many stimuli trying to escape -- all stimuli will be equally as frequent. - when the cat finds the puzzle to the escape, that will be the most common stimuli it engages with as it has a positive outcome

Answer 5

positive reinforcement: add pleasant stimulus to increase behaviour negative reinforcement: remove aversive stimulus to increase behaviour positive punishment: add aversive stimulus to decrease behaviour negative punishment: remove pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior positive = add negative = remove reinforcement = increase behaviour (frequency increase) punishment = decrease behaviour (frequency decrease)

Answer 6

1. Token economies in hospitals and classrooms * Tokens can be exchanged for goods and services (ice cream, watching a movie) * Good behaviors get tokens, bad behaviors cost tokens - essentially positive reinforcement 2. Applied behavior analysis (ABA) to teach new skills (most often used for children with autism spectrum disorders) * Intensive study of behavioral patterns, with the goal of encouraging certain behaviors through a personalized behavior modification program * Effective in some cases, though not without controversy

Answer 7

- a mix of both R and P is the best - each alone is not as effective Reasons why P alone is bad: * Use of punishment alone is problematic * Punishment does not tell you what to do, only what NOT to do * Punishment elicits negative emotions which may interfere with learning, limiting growth * Punishment can encourage secretive behavior (you simply won’t notify other people of your mistakes)

Answer 8

Schedules of reinforcement: 1. continuous reinforcement schedules when you always get a consequence from a behaviour ie. good behaviour = reward bad behaviour = punishment -- 2.partial reinforcement schedules when sometimes you get the consequence for the behaviour a. interval reinforcement consequence is always based around time. i. fixed interval consequence after a fixed amount of time. ii. variable interval consequence after a roughly estimated amount of time. b. ratio reinforcement amount of responses will elicit consequence. i. fixed ratio consequence after a fixed number of responses ii. variable ratio consequence after a variable number of responses

Answer 9

* In a FI schedule, you receive reinforcement within a fixed amount of time ex. paycheck every two weeks * Ex: If you complete an assignment (R) by a specific date (interval), you will get a high mark (reinforcement) * You often won’t start the assignment (show little responses) until near the end of the deadline because you will still get a grade no matter what (wont be not graded)

Answer 10

* In a VI schedule, you receive reinforcement after an average amount of time ex. grades are posted 7-10 days after the exam. * Ex: If you check your Quercus account (R) within the next 12 hours (interval average), you will eventually get to know your test mark (reinforcement) - but you also check more frequently because its an average

Answer 11

* In FR, a behavior is reinforced after a specific amount of responses * Many deals use the FR schedule * Ex: For every three tires you buy (R x 3), you get a fourth one free (reinforcement)

Answer 12

* In VR, reinforcement comes after an average number of responses * Common in games of chance such as poker! * If you keep betting on ‘good’ hands (R), you will eventually win (reinforcement) (please don’t do this lol)

Answer 13

fixed ratio and interval responses have a **post reinforcement pause** -- when we get a reward, we wait to start the other task because we know exactly when the other one is coming and thus have some time to linger variable ratio and intervals are steady and are typically yield higher responses because we dont know when the reward is coming exactly (highest for VR -- average response and dont know exactly, thus higher responses)

Answer 14

- highest extinction: continuous reinforcement --> if you always get a reward after, and suddenly the reward stops -- extinction is rapid of the partial reinforcement schedules: * greater extinction: fixed schedules --> you know when to expect the reward * greatest extinction resistance = variable ratio --> have the longest reinforcement waiting period -- because your not expecting every response to get a reward, you keep responding.

Answer 15

- usually learning is a direct experience that happens to you - we can also learn observationally defn: When an animal learns through witnessing the behaviors of another animal * No direct experience required **Bandura**’s studies of aggression are key: * Children who watch videos of aggressive acts are more likely to engage in them immediately afterward* - even though the relationship in the lab is strong, we understand that dolls are fantasy, so the results don't translate directly

Answer 16

* Learning that is not being expressed, usually because of a lack of incentive ex. you may not do your laundry or clean up the dishes, not because you don't know how to do it, but because there is no incentive -- no reward or punishment * If incentives are present, learning could be revealed evidence seen in Tolman + Honzik’s studies

Answer 17

1. Longhand note-taking over laptop note taking * Nearby laptops can be distracting -- even if you arent on your laptop 2. Pair note-taking with mental imagery **(Dual Coding Theory)** 3. Testing yourself (retrieval learning) 4. Spacing out your learning * **Spaced practice** more effective than massed practice, even though most people believe otherwise

Answer 18

People might study in different ways * **Visual**, auditory, reading, kinesthetic and more Some attractive possibilities: * People differ naturally in their study method (**learning style**) * People perform best using a certain study method However, neither idea is well-supported * Most people study the exact same way (i.e. reading) * Enforcing a study method does not improve performance Interestingly, **visual learners** perform better

Answer 19

* **Process** whereby information is stored, consolidated + retrieved * Several types (or stores): sensory --> short-term/STM --> long-term/LTM ....with different properties - this sequence is called serial processing where **order matters**

Answer 20

Duration = Length of time information can be stored without rehearsal (limited by decay) Capacity = Amount of information that can be stored

Answer 21

**duration** = **very short** -- in the order of seconds (sometimes fractions of a second, i.e. for vision) ex. seeing a flash of lightning - **the decay of information** is rapid **capacity** = theoretically large but **functionally small**, as you can only attend to/report on a few stimuli (e.g. 4 items)

Answer 22

* ‘Mental sketchpad’ where information is kept **Duration = is short (seconds to minutes)** but longer than that of sensory memory * Cognitive psychologists consider STM duration to be approximately 15 – 30 seconds (often citing 20 seconds) * Some dispute over the exact duration (difficult to estimate precisely, due to logistic issues) * Notably, this duration (in other order of seconds) strongly conflicts with public perceptions * Information stored here decays unless it is **emotionally salient and/or mentally rehearsed** **Capacity** = **hold 7 items** -- 7 numbers or letters * Tested using the **digit span task** * Digit span = longest string of digits you can remember without error; population average ~ 7

Answer 23

**Chunking** involves dividing a body of information into several meaningful groups -- corresponding information with ideas already in your long term memory (ie meaningful abbrevations) * Chunking increases STM capacity * STM capacity is thus not ~7 items, but ~7 chunks What if chunking and rehearsal are prevented? * Capacity may drop to as little as 3 items

Answer 24

V1 = STM model V2 = WM/ working memory model limitations: * **Multi-tasking** is difficult to explain * If we only had a single STM store, we would expect poor performance whenever two tasks are performed simultaneously (one store, divided two ways, less resources available and more interference) * However, we can actually perform certain tasks simultaneously without problems, such as reasoning + holding digits * These issues lead to the proposal of **working memory**, which incorporates several stores - one visual and one verbal etc.

Answer 25

* **Several processes** that work together to manage information (visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop and central executive) * **WM involves manipulating information**

Answer 26

Count the number of unrelated words that can be remembered (**temporary storage**) while simultaneously carrying out a math task (**active processing**)

Answer 27

* Short duration (order of seconds) but longer than for sensory memory * Decay of information and **interference** are issues (increase duration = increase capacity for interferance) * interference = phenomenon where the retrieval or processing of information is disrupted due to the presence of competing or conflicting information. * Capacity is small (but can be circumvented w/practices like chunking)

Answer 28

1. maintenance (simple repetition) 2. elaborative (complex, involves relating the information to other concepts)

Answer 29

When given a short list of items, you will generally remember the first and last part well also called **serial position effect.** why does this happen? primacy = rehearsed first and continued to rehearse recency = no time to decay

Answer 30

1. declarative/explicit (memories you can recall) a. episodic b. semantic 2. nondeclarative/ implicit/procedural (procedural memories) a. skill learning b. priming c. conditioning

Answer 31

* Episodic = A person’s unique memory of an event from their perspective “REMEMBERING” * Semantic = General knowledge that anyone could know (almost like trivia) * Who is the prime minister? * How many calories are in a bagel? * What does the acronym CBC stand for? "KNOWING"

Answer 32

* Experience influences future behavior (e.g. typing, drawing, athletics + music are learned w/experience) * Involuntary * No awareness of memory being utilized * Contents of implicit memories cannot be reported

Answer 33

- HM had his hippocampus removed in an attempt to treat epilepsy - HM could not acquire new declarative memories from the point of injury - However, HM could acquire some new non- declarative memories (e.g. mirror tracing) after injury

Answer 34

- Sometimes we have a memory but cannot retrieve it fully (the infamous ‘tip-of-the-tongue’ phenomenon) - Often times, all we need is a subtle cue (hint) to retrieve the full memory – this is called priming or queuing Just because the information is stored in LTM does not mean it is accessible to you.

Answer 35

* Most people think of memory as a process wherein you retrieve something from the past (e.g. video or a book) and re- experience it in the present * This popular idea presumes that a memory is stored in a permanent form which does not change * This is not how memory works

Answer 36

memory is (re)constructed * Memory is not passively retrieved but actively assembled * We do not ‘see the past’ but build a mental representation of it * Construction is influenced by our current goals, expectations, knowledge + schemas * Memories may change every time we recall them - does not stay the same -- the memories we made long ago were built on the foundations we were then. now we may view it differently because we are different.

Answer 37

* A schema is a cognitive framework that is developed through experience * A **script** is a type of schema consisting of a sequence of events predicted by the individual for ex. if you forget what happened at a wedding, you will assume what happened via schemas. we know every wedding has a cake cutting part, speeches, dances, food etc. so we fill in the gaps of what may have happened with our schemas Memory has gaps. We fill in these gaps with schemas (e.g. we estimate what has happened based on what happened in the past).

Answer 38

* When we are trying to identify the source of information * Attributions of information are often **schema-based** (particularly when we lack time/details) * Sometimes, **we have trouble identifying whether or not the source is ourselves** * Source monitoring errors may explain some cases of plagiarism or artistic theft

Answer 39

flashbulb memories: we remember arousing experiences much better than typical daily events. however, Memories for everyday + emotionally arousing events **become inaccurate over time**, **though confidence in arousing memories remains high** so for arousing events we may recall the central ideas, but through time inconsistent memories arise Therefore, our memory for certain details of arousing experiences is excellent. For example you’re unlikely to forget: * Who won the game * A weapon used in a crime that you witnessed However, our memory for many other details of the event is normal (i.e. poor). You might forget: * where you watched the game * what the individual carrying the weapon looked like **The physiological state of arousal affects memory storage** (changes in cortisol and noradrenaline are particularly meaningful)

Answer 40

major implication = eye-witness testimonies Plays a pivotal role in the legal system, but unfortunately it is not perfectly reliable 3⁄4 of wrongful convictions are due to erroneous testimony Though eyewitnesses are often confident in their testimony, their accounts can be inaccurate * Eyewitnesses are just as confident in incorrect accounts as they are with correct ones * Confidence is not perfectly related to memory accuracy After the crime, an eyewitness’ memory can be modified by interviews, media coverage and other events. This is an example of the **misinformation effect,** aka memory is reconstructive.

Answer 41

when intervening effects can disrupt an original memories and make it inaccurate. example: 90 people recall an event they saw encoding = everyone is given the same stimulus post-event information = interviewer asks questions about the event - these questions can be framed to be consistent, neutral, or inconsistent to what happened retrieval = there will be alternative forced choice recognition depending on the question asked. they forget and alter to a different degree. thus the question asked, has an effect on memory.

Answer 42

We are all vulnerable, but some groups are more vulnerable than others Younger children + older adults generally more vulnerable Individual traits may matter; high empathy and low intelligence are linked to increased vulnerability Even individuals with exceptional memory (extreme outliers) are vulnerable to misinformation

Answer 43

* May be inadvertently created by interactions with law enforcement, media or therapists and more. ex. a therapist may ask leading questions making you exaggerate a scenario in your mind and change your perception * Implications serious; false memories of crimes can result in wrongful convictions

Answer 44

* Aversive memories too traumatic for the individual to handle may be hidden beneath consciousness * These memories may re-emerge later in life * Repressed memories are a very controversial idea; their existence is disputed (memory wars)1 * Skeptical psychologists believe that repressed memories are likely false memories

Answer 45

sober encoding = sober recall drunk encoding = drunk recall you recall better in the physiological state you learned in the info in. not that backed up

Answer 46

Memory recall is influenced by the individual’s mood * When you’re angry, you might think of other times you were angry * Depressed people might be more likely to recall negative information pretty backed up

Answer 47

OISE encoding for PSY100 = OISE recall for PSY100 underwater encoding = underwater recall If you encoded in a certain environment, recall will be best in that environment. This is because your environment gives you cues on what you are trying to remember.