Lab Practical #1 and 2 Flashcards
(125 cards)
1
Q
Lab Practical #1
What is 3?
A
Corpus callosum: The largest white matter structure connecting the left and right hemispheres of the brain.
- It facilitates communication between these hemispheres, allowing information, signals, and sensory data to be shared and processed between the two sides of the brain.
2
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Thalamus: Acts as a relay station for sensory information, receiving signals from various sensory receptors throughout the body (except smell) and then directing these signals to the relevant areas of the cerebral cortex for further processing.
- It’s often referred to as the “gateway to the cortex” due to its pivotal role in sensory relay.
3
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Hypothalamus:
- Hypothalamus serves as a control center for many essential bodily functions, including regulating body temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, and the circadian rhythm.
- Plays a crucial role in controlling the release of hormones from the pituitary gland, which in turn influences various other glands throughout the body.
- Acts as your body’s smart control coordinating center.
- Its main function is to keep your body in a stable state called homeostasis.
4
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Brainstem - Midbrain:
- The midbrain serves as a vital relay center for auditory and visual information.
- It contains nuclei that process and relay sensory signals from the eyes and ears to higher brain regions responsible for perception and interpretation.
- Structures like the superior colliculus process visual information, while the inferior colliculus handles auditory information.
- The reticular formation, a network of neurons extending from the hindbrain to the midbrain, is responsible for regulating levels of consciousness and arousal.
- The midbrain lies the substantia nigra, a region crucial for the coordination and initiation of voluntary movements
5
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Brainstem - Pons:
- Relay Center for Communication
- Regulation of Breathing (with medulla)
- Sleep Regulation and Facial Sensation
6
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Brainstem - Medulla:
- Cardiovascular Control: Nuclei within the medulla control heart rate, the force of heart contractions, and blood vessel dilation/constriction.
- Respiratory Control: The medulla regulates the rate, depth, and rhythm of breathing.
- Reflex Actions: It coordinates various reflexes, including swallowing, coughing, sneezing, and vomiting
7
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Pineal gland (epithalamus):
Melatonin Production: The pineal gland is primarily known for its role in producing and secreting the hormone melatonin.
- Regulation of Biological Rhythms: The pineal gland influences various biological rhythms, including reproductive hormone cycles, body temperature, and some behavioral patterns
- Connection to Circadian Rhythms and Seasonal Changes:
8
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Pituitary gland:
- Master Gland: Located at the base of the brain, below the hypothalamus. It plays a central role in regulating various bodily functions by releasing hormones that control the activities of other endocrine glands throughout the body.
- Two Distinct Lobes: The pituitary gland consists of two main lobes—the anterior pituitary (or adenohypophysis) and the posterior pituitary (or neurohypophysis).
- Regulation by the Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus secretes “releasing” and “inhibiting” hormones that either stimulate or inhibit the pituitary gland’s hormone production and release.
9
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Foramen magnum: Serves as the passage through which the spinal cord connects to the brain.
- This opening allows the spinal cord to continue from the brainstem into the vertebral canal.
superior view
10
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Tentorium cerebelli:
- Anatomical Barrier: The tentorium cerebelli is a tough, crescent-shaped fold of dura mater—the tough outermost membrane covering the brain—that extends horizontally within the skull.
- Division of Brain Regions: This structure separates the cerebral hemispheres (specifically, the occipital lobes) located above from the cerebellum and brainstem below.
11
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Falx cerebei:
- Anatomical Partition: The falx cerebri is a tough, sickle-shaped fold of dura mater—the tough outermost membrane covering the brain—that lies within the longitudinal fissure between the two cerebral hemispheres.
- Division of Brain Regions: This structure serves as a structural partition between the right and left cerebral hemispheres.
12
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Parietooccipital sulcus:
- Anatomical Boundary: It forms a clear demarcation between the parietal and occipital lobes.
- Sensory and Visual Integration: The parietal lobe is primarily involved in sensory processing and integration, while the occipital lobe plays a crucial role in visual processing and perception.
13
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Tectum of midbrain
- Structure and Components:
- The tectum comprises four rounded elevations known as colliculi (singular: colliculus). There are two superior colliculi and two inferior colliculi.
- The superior colliculi are involved in visual processing, particularly in coordinating eye movements and visual attention.
- The inferior colliculi are crucial for auditory processing, receiving and relaying auditory information from the brainstem to higher auditory centers.
- Sensory Integration and Reflexes: The tectum, with its colliculi, plays a fundamental role in sensory integration and reflexive responses.
14
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Cingulate gyrus (limbic lobe):
- Emotional and Cognitive Functions: The anterior cingulate gyrus is primarily involved in emotional processing, including regulation of emotions, motivation, and social behavior.
15
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Sagittal fissure / Longitudinal fissure link:
- This is the prominent groove that divides the brain into two distinct hemispheres, the right and left cerebral hemispheres.
16
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Central sulcus:
- The central sulcus is a significant anatomical landmark in the brain that separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe.
17
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Lateral fissure:
- Also known as the Sylvian fissure, is a significant groove that separates the temporal lobe from both the frontal and parietal lobes in the brain.
18
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Precentral gyrus:
- Prominent structure in the brain that houses the primary motor cortex, a region responsible for controlling voluntary movements.
19
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Post central gyrus:
- Contains the primary somatosensory cortex, responsible for processing sensory information from the body
20
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Inferior frontal gyrus:
- A crucial region in the frontal lobe, contributing significantly to various higher-order cognitive processes: language processing, social cognition, and executive functions.
21
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Temporal lobe:
- Memory, Emotion, and Language: The temporal lobes play a crucial role in memory formation and retrieval.
- Auditory Processing: The primary auditory cortex, responsible for receiving and processing auditory information, is located in the temporal lobes. This region allows us to perceive and interpret sounds, including speech and other auditory stimuli.
22
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Frontal lobe:
- Motor Control and Personality: The primary motor cortex, responsible for voluntary movements, is located in the frontal lobe, specifically in the precentral gyrus.
- Lesions or abnormalities in this region can lead to changes in behavior, decision-making, and personality.
- Medial Dorsal Prefrontal (medial 8, 9; 10)
- Dorsolateral Prefrontal (lateral 8, 9; 46)
- Ventral prefrontal (11, 44, 45, 47)
- Parietotemporal Association (39, 40, parts of 7, 19, 21, 22, 37).
- Executive Functions: The frontal lobe is associated with higher cognitive functions known as executive functions, which include planning, problem-solving, decision-making, reasoning, and judgment.
- Plays a role in working memory, attention, and cognitive flexibility, allowing individuals to adapt to changing circumstances.
23
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Parietal lobe:
- Sensory Integration: The parietal lobe plays a crucial role in integrating sensory information from various modalities, including touch, temperature, pain, and proprioception (awareness of body position).
- Spatial Processing and Attention: This lobe is involved in spatial perception
24
Q
Lab Practical #1
A
Parietal lobe:
- Sensory Integration: The parietal lobe plays a crucial role in integrating sensory information from various modalities, including touch, temperature, pain, and proprioception (awareness of body position).
- Spatial Processing and Attention: This lobe is involved in spatial perception
25
# Lab Practical #1
**Brainstem** [link](htthttps://www.neuroanatomy.sites.tau.ac.il/surfaces-of-the-cerebrump://):
* The brainstem is essential for fundamental bodily functions, including regulating vital autonomic functions such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion. It also serves as a conduit for sensory and motor pathways, allowing signals to travel between the brain and the rest of the body.
26
# Lab Practical #1
What view?
Cerebellum - anterior view
27
# Lab Practical #1
What view?
Cerebellum - posterior view
28
# Lab Practical #1
What view?
Cerebellum - midsagittal view
29
# Lab Practical #1
Cerebellum - **cerebellar peduncle (superior)**:
* structure connecting the cerebellum to the midbrain
* **Motor Output Pathway**: The fibers within the superior cerebellar peduncle carry efferent fibers, transmitting signals from the cerebellum to various regions involved in motor control
## Footnote
Lateral view
30
# Lab Practical #1
Cerebellum - **cerebellar peduncle (middle)**:
* Link the cerebellum to the brainstem.
* **Transmission of Cortical Input**: The middle cerebellar peduncle carries fibers that originate mainly from the pontine nuclei and relay information from the cerebral cortex to the cerebellum. These fibers transmit signals related to planned movements and motor coordination from the motor and premotor areas of the cerebral cortex to the cerebellum.
## Footnote
Lateral / superior view
31
# Lab Practical #1
Cerebellum - **cerebellar peduncle (inferior)** [link](hhttps://www.neuroanatomy.sites.tau.ac.il/cerebellum)
* It connects the medulla (specifically the medullary reticular formation and spinal cord) to the cerebellum.
* **Transmission of Sensory Information**: The inferior cerebellar peduncle primarily carries sensory information to the cerebellum. It transmits proprioceptive input from the spinal cord and medulla, conveying information about body position, muscle tone, limb movements, and other sensory data necessary for coordination and motor control.
## Footnote
Lateral / superior view
32
# Lab Practical #1
Cerebellum - **vermis**:
* **Motor Control**: Vermis contributes more to axial and proximal muscle control.
* **Balance and Posture**: The vermis is particularly essential for maintaining balance and regulating posture.
## Footnote
superior view
33
# Lab Practical #1
Cerebellum - **vermis**:
* **Motor Control**: Vermis contributes more to axial and proximal muscle control.
* **Balance and Posture**: The vermis is particularly essential for maintaining balance and regulating posture.
## Footnote
mid sagittal / posterior view
34
# Lab Practical #1
Cerebellum - **lateral hemisphere**:
* Primarily influence **distal limb** movements and motor coordination.
* **Motor Coordination**: The lateral hemisphere of the cerebellum contributes significantly to motor coordination and fine-tuning of movements.
* **Motor Learning**: The lateral hemisphere of the cerebellum is also involved in motor learning and adaptation. It plays a role in acquiring new motor skills, adjusting movements based on feedback, and automating previously learned motor tasks
## Footnote
Inferior / lateral / superior view
35
# Lab Practical #1
**Tegmentum** of midbrain:
* **Location and Composition**: The tegmentum is a region within the brainstem, situated dorsally (toward the back) to the ventricular system.
* **Role in Motor Control**: Within the tegmentum, there are nuclei and pathways involved in motor control and coordination.
* **Integration of Sensory and Autonomic Functions**: The tegmentum contains sensory nuclei and pathways that process sensory information, particularly from the cranial nerves.
36
# Lab Practical #1
**arachnoid matter** = a fine, delicate membrane, the middle one of the three membranes or meninges that surround the brain and spinal cord, situated between the dura mater and the pia mater. [link](hhttps://www.neuroanatomy.sites.tau.ac.il/surfaces-of-the-cerebrumttp://)
| Lab Practical #1
37
# Lab Practical #1
Body of corpus callosum [link](http:https://www.neuroanatomy.sites.tau.ac.il/copy-of-blood-vessels-of-the-brain//)
38
# Lab Practical #1
Cranial nerve?
Olfactory nerve (CN I)
* sensory
* sense of smell
39
# Lab Practical #1
Cranial nerve?
Optic nerve (CN II)
* sensory
* vision
40
# Lab Practical #1
Cranial nerve?
**Oculomotor nerve** (CN III)
* motor
* eye movements; papillary constriction and accommodation; muscles of eyelid
41
# Lab Practical #1
Cranial nerve?
**Trochlear nerve** (CN IV)
* motor
* eye movements (intorsion, downward gaze)
42
# Lab Practical #1
Cranial nerve?
**Trigeminal nerve** (CN V)
* sensory and motor
* somatic sensation from face, mouth, cornea; muscles of mastication
43
# Lab Practical #1
Cranial nerve?
**Abducens nerve** (CN VI)
* motor
* eye movements (abduction or lateral movements)
44
# Lab Practical #1
Cranial nerve?
**Facial nerve** (CN VII)
* sensory and motor
* controls muscles of facial expression; taste from anterior tongue, lacrimal and salivary glands
45
# Lab Practical #1
Cranial nerve?
**vestibulocochlear nerve** (CN VIII)
* sensory
* hearing; sense of balance
46
# Lab Practical #1
Cranial nerve?
**Glossopharyngeal nerve** (CN IX)
* sensory and motor
* sensation from posterior tongue and pharynx; taste form posterior tongue; carotid and baroreceptors
47
# Lab Practical #1
Cranial nerve?
**Vagus nerve** (CN X)
* sensory and motor
* autonomic = gut, sensation from larynx and pharynx; muscles of vocal cards; swallowing
48
# Lab Practical #1
Cranial nerve?
**Accessory nerve** (CN XI)
* motor
* shoulder and neck muscles
49
# Lab Practical #1
Cranial nerve?
**Hypoglossal nerve** (CN XII)
* motor
* movements of tongue
50
# Lab Practical #1
Cortical area?
**Primary Somatosensory**: located within central sulcus and on adjacent postcentral gyrus.
* **Function** = Location of stimuli and discriminate among various sizes, shapes and textures of objects.
* **Lesion** = Loss of tactile localization and conscious proprioception.
## Footnote
3-1-2
51
# Lab Practical #1
Cortical area?
**Secondary Somatosensory** (5,7):
* **Function** = Stereognosis (*the mental perception of depth or three-dimensionality by the senses, usually in reference to the ability to perceive the form of solid objects by touch*) and memory of the tactile and spatial envirnment.
* **Lesion** = Astereognosis (the inability to discriminate shape and size by touch and the inability to recognize objects by touch)
52
# Lab Practical #1
Cortical area?
**Primary Auditory** (41): Located in the lateral fissure and on adjacent superior temporal gyrus.
* Conscious awareness of the intensity of sound
* **Function** = Conscious discrimination of loudness and pitch of soundness.
* **Lesion** = Loss of localization of sounds.
## Footnote
41
53
# Lab Practical #1
Cortical area?
**Secondary Auditory** (22, 42):
* **Function** = Classification of sounds.
* **Lesion** = Auditory agnosia (*Impairments in sound perception and identification despite intact hearing, cognitive functioning, and language abilities*).
## Footnote
22,42
54
# Lab Practical #1
Cortical area?
**Primary Vestibular** (40):
* **Function** = Discriminates among head positions and head movements, contributes to perception of vertical.
* **Lesion** = Change in awareness of head position and movement and perception of vertical.
## Footnote
anterior 40
55
# Lab Practical #1
Cortical area?
**Primary Visual** (17): located in calcarine sulcus and on the adjacent gyrus.
* **Function** = Light/ dark, various shapes, locations of object and movements of object.
* **Lesion** = Homonymous hemianopia (*visual field defect that involves vision loss on the same side of the visual field in both eyes*)
56
# Lab Practical #1
Cortical area?
**Secondary Visual** (22, 42):
* **Function** = Analysis of motion, color; recognition of visual objects; understanding of visual spatial relationships; control of visual fixation.
**Lesion** =
* **Visual agnosia**: Difficulty recognizing or identifying objects or people visually, despite having normal vision.
* **Optic ataxia**: Condition characterized by difficulties in visually guiding movements, particularly reaching and grasping objects accurately.
## Footnote
18-21
57
# Lab Practical #1
Cortical area?
**Primary Motor** (4):
* **Function** = Voluntary controlled movements
* **Lesion** = Paresis, loss of fine motor control, spastic dysarthria
## Footnote
4
58
# Lab Practical #1
Cortical area?
**Supplementary Motor**:
* **Function** = Initiation of movement, orientation planning, bimanual and sequential movements
* **Lesion** = Apraxia (*condition that affects the ability to perform purposeful movements or sequences of movements, despite having the physical ability and understanding of the task*)
## Footnote
superomedial 6
59
# Lab Practical #1
Cortical area?
**Premotor Area**:
* **Function** = Control of trunk and girdle muscles, anticipatory postural adjustments
* **Lesion** = Apraxia (loss of ability to execute or carry out skilled movement and gestures, despite having the physical ability and desire to perform them).
## Footnote
lateral 6
60
# Lab Practical #1
Cortical area?
**Broca's Area**:
* **Function** = Motor programming of speech (left hemi)
* **Lesion** = Broca's aphasia
61
# Lab Practical #1
Spinal-cerebellum ?
**Spinalcerebellum**:
* vermis and paravermal regions
* coordinate trunk/gross limb movements
62
# Lab Practical #1
Cerebro-cerebellum ?
* lateral hemisphere
* distal voluntary movements
* coordination
63
# Lab Practical #1
vestibulo-cerebellum ?
* flocculus and nodulus
* equilibrium
* input to coordinate motor activites for posture, head and eye movements
64
# Lab Practical #2
Identify
| *green*
**Cornea**:
* The cornea is the transparent outermost layer of the eye that covers the iris and the pupil.
* It helps to focus light into the eye and plays a significant role in vision by bending or refracting light as it enters the eye.
## Footnote
Visual System
65
# Lab Practical #2
Identify
| *green*
**Sclera**:
* The sclera is the tough, white outer layer of the eyeball.
* It provides structural support to the eye and helps maintain its shape.
## Footnote
Visual System
66
# Lab Practical #2
Identify
| *green*
**Lens**:
* The lens is a transparent, flexible structure situated behind the iris.
* It focuses light onto the retina by changing its shape through a process called accommodation, allowing for clear vision at various distances
## Footnote
Visual System
67
# Lab Practical #2
Identify
| *green*
**Pupil**:
* The pupil is the black circular opening in the center of the iris.
* It regulates the amount of light entering the eye by adjusting its size in response to varying light conditions.
## Footnote
Visual System
68
# Lab Practical #2
Identify
| *green*
**Retina**:
* The retina is the light-sensitive inner lining at the back of the eye.
* It contains photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) that convert light into electrical signals, which are then transmitted via the optic nerve to the brain for visual processing.
## Footnote
Visual System
69
# Lab Practical #2
Identify
| *green*
**Optic nerve**:
* The optic nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers that carries visual information from the retina to the brain.
* It acts as the communication pathway between the eye and the brain, allowing for visual perception.
## Footnote
Visual System
70
# Lab Practical #2
Identify
| *green*
**Iris**:
* The iris is a ring-shaped muscle responsible for controlling the size of the pupil.
* It adjusts the size of the pupil in response to different lighting conditions to regulate the amount of light entering the eye.
## Footnote
Visual System
71
# Lab Practical #2
Identify
| *green*
**Superior rectus**:
* This is one of the six extraocular muscles that control eye movements.
* It primarily aids in upward movement and slight inward rotation of the eye.
## Footnote
Visual System
72
# Lab Practical #2
Identify
| *green*
**Inferior rectus**:
* Helps in downward movement and slight inward rotation of the eye.
## Footnote
Visual System
73
# Lab Practical #2
Identify
| *green*
**Lateral rectus**:
* This muscle is responsible for outward movement or abduction of the eye.
## Footnote
Visual System
74
# Lab Practical #2
Identify
| *green*
**Medial rectus**:
* Facilitates inward movement or **adduction** of the eye.
## Footnote
Visual System
75
# Lab Practical #2
Identify
| *green*
**Superior oblique**:
* This muscle aids in downward and outward rotation of the eye.
* Intorsion (IR), depression, and abduction.
## Footnote
Visual System
76
# Lab Practical #2
Identify
| *green*
**Inferior oblique**:
* The inferior oblique muscle contributes to upward and outward rotation of the eye.
## Footnote
Visual System
77
# Lab Practical #2
**Nerve roots** (ventral):
* Ventral nerve roots carry motor information from the spinal cord to the body.
* They exit the anterior side of the spinal cord and contain motor neurons controlling muscle movement.
## Footnote
Spinal region
78
# Lab Practical #2
**Nerve roots** (dorsal):
* Dorsal nerve roots carry sensory information from the body to the spinal cord.
* They enter the posterior side of the spinal cord and contain sensory neurons transmitting information like touch, temperature, and pain.
## Footnote
Spinal region
79
# Lab Practical #2
**Dorsal root ganglion**:
* Cluster of nerve cell bodies located just outside the spinal cord where the dorsal nerve root enters.
* It contains the cell bodies of sensory neurons whose axons extend into the spinal cord.
## Footnote
Spinal region
80
# Lab Practical #2
**Anterior view of spinal cord**:
## Footnote
Spinal region
81
# Lab Practical #2
**Posterior view of spinal cord**:
## Footnote
Spinal region
82
# Lab Practical #2
**Posterior Horn** (on model):
* These areas contain interneurons and incoming axons of sensory neurons. They receive and process sensory information such as touch, temperature, pain, and proprioception (awareness of body position), before relaying this information to other parts of the nervous system for further processing and response.
## Footnote
Spinal region
83
# Lab Practical #2
**Lateral Horn** (on model):
* These sections are found only in the thoracic and upper lumbar segments of the spinal cord.
* They contain autonomic neurons that regulate involuntary functions like heart rate, digestion, and respiration.
## Footnote
Spinal region
84
# Lab Practical #2
**Anterior Horn** (on model):
* These regions contain cell bodies of motor neurons that send signals to control skeletal muscles.
* They are responsible for initiating and coordinating voluntary muscle movements throughout the body.
## Footnote
Spinal region
85
# Lab Practical #2
**Conus medullaris**:
* Its location marks the endpoint of the spinal cord proper and is crucial in surgical procedures, as damage beyond this point might not affect the spinal cord itself but can impact the nerves composing the cauda equina.
## Footnote
Spinal region
86
# Lab Practical #2
**Cauda equine**:
* This bundle of nerves is important because it carries signals to and from the lower limbs and pelvic organs.
* Injuries or conditions affecting the cauda equina can result in motor or sensory deficits in the lower extremities.
## Footnote
Spinal region
87
# Lab Practical #2
**Filum terminale**:
## Footnote
Spinal region
88
# Lab Practical #2
**Dura matter** (Spinal):
* The tough outer layer provides protection for the spinal cord.
* It's a durable, fibrous membrane that encases the spinal cord, shielding it from potential physical damage or trauma.
## Footnote
Spinal region
89
# Lab Practical #2
**Arachnoid matter**:
* Positioned beneath the dura mater, the arachnoid mater forms a protective layer and, along with the subarachnoid space, contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
* This fluid provides cushioning and shock absorption for the spinal cord against sudden movements or impacts.
## Footnote
Spinal region
90
# Lab Practical #2
**Pia matter**:
* The innermost layer closely envelops the spinal cord's surface, providing support and nourishment.
* It's highly vascular and supplies essential nutrients and oxygen to the spinal cord tissues.
## Footnote
Spinal region
91
# Lab Practical #2
**Lumbar enlargement**:
* Situated in the lumbar region (L1-S3 segments), the lumbar enlargement is another widened portion of the spinal cord. Similar to the cervical enlargement, it houses more gray matter and is responsible for giving rise to nerves that supply the lower limbs, especially critical for motor and sensory functions in the legs.
## Footnote
Spinal region
92
# Lab Practical #2
**Cervical enlargement**:
* This enlargement occurs in the cervical region of the spinal cord (C4-T1 segments). It's characterized by a widened area in the spinal cord's diameter and contains more gray matter.
* This region gives rise to nerves that supply the upper limbs, particularly important for motor and sensory functions in the arms.
## Footnote
Spinal region
93
# Lab Practical #2
**Anterior semicircular canal**:
* Receptors in semicircular canals detect rotational movement of the head by sensing the motion of endolymph (a fluid in membranous labyrinth).
* **Anterior Canal** = Detects the rotation of head up and down, yes motion, sagittal plane
## Footnote
Vestibular system
94
# Lab Practical #2
**Posterior semicircular canal**:
* Receptors in semicircular canals detect rotational movement of the head by sensing the motion of endolymph (a fluid in membranous labyrinth).
* **Posterior Canal** = Detects the rotation of head up and down to side, coronal plane.
## Footnote
Vestibular system
95
# Lab Practical #2
| *orange*
**Lateral semicircular canal**:
* Receptors in semicircular canals detect rotational movement of the head by sensing the motion of endolymph (a fluid in membranous labyrinth).
* **Lateral Canal** = Detects the rotation of the head from side to side, no motion, transverse plane.
## Footnote
Vestibular system
96
# Lab Practical #2
| *green*
**Otolith organs**:
* Anatomic site of sensory receptors (**utricle**, **saccule**) that respond to head position relative to gravity and to linear acceleration and deceleration of the head.
## Footnote
Vestibular system
97
# Lab Practical #2
What nerve?
| *yellow*
**Vestibulocochlear nerve**:
* Vestibulocochlear nerve contains afferents for hearing and equilibrium
* Part of inner ear
## Footnote
Vestibular system
98
# Lab Practical #2
| *green*
**Cochlea**:
* A spiral-shaped, fluid-filled structure in the inner ear responsible for converting sound waves into electrical signals.
* It's a key component in the process of hearing.
## Footnote
Vestibular system
99
# Lab Practical #2
| *green*
**Pinna**:
* The visible outer part of the ear.
* It helps collect and funnel sound waves into the ear canal.
## Footnote
Vestibular system
100
# Lab Practical #2
| *green*
**External auditory meatus**:
* The ear canal, a tube-like structure leading from the pinna to the eardrum.
* It conducts sound waves to the middle ear.
## Footnote
Vestibular system
101
# Lab Practical #2
**Ossicles**:
* These are the three tiny bones (malleus, incus, and stapes) in the middle ear that transmit sound vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear, amplifying the sound along the way.
## Footnote
Vestibular system
102
# Lab Practical #2
**Ear drum**:
* Also called the tympanic membrane, it's a thin membrane that separates the outer ear from the middle ear.
* It vibrates in response to sound waves, transmitting these vibrations to the ossicles.
## Footnote
Vestibular system
103
# Lab Practical #2
What artery?
**Anterior cerebral artery**:
* Supplies blood to the medial portions of the frontal and parietal lobes.
* An injury to this artery might result in weakness or sensory loss in the contralateral lower limb.
## Footnote
Blood Flow
104
# Lab Practical #2
What artery?
**Posterior cerebral artery**:
* Supplies blood to the occipital lobe, part of the temporal lobe, and the midbrain.
* Damage to this artery could lead to visual disturbances, such as cortical blindness or deficits in visual perception.
## Footnote
Blood Flow
105
# Lab Practical #2
What artery?
**Middle cerebral artery**:
* Provides blood to a large part of the lateral surface of the brain, including parts of the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes.
* An injury here could cause weakness or sensory deficits in the contralateral face and arm, as well as language impairments if in the dominant hemisphere.
## Footnote
Blood Flow
106
# Lab Practical #2
What artery?
**Vertebral artery**:
* Supplies blood to the brainstem, cerebellum, and posterior part of the brain.
* Damage may result in dizziness, double vision, and even problems with coordination and balance.
## Footnote
Blood Flow
107
# Lab Practical #2
What artery?
**Basilar artery**:
* Supplies the brainstem and cerebellum.
* An injury could lead to symptoms such as difficulty swallowing, facial weakness, double vision, and issues with speech and balance.
## Footnote
Blood Flow
108
# Lab Practical #2
What artery?
**Internal carotid artery**:
* Supplies blood to the majority of the anterior cerebrum.
* Damage here might cause weakness or sensory loss in the face, as well as potential issues with higher cognitive functions.
## Footnote
Blood Flow
109
# Lab Practical #2
What artery?
**Posterior communicating artery**:
* This artery connects the internal carotid artery to the posterior cerebral artery.
* Damage may result in vision problems, particularly affecting the ability to see the periphery of the visual field.
## Footnote
Blood Flow
110
# Lab Practical #2
What artery?
**Anterior communicating artery**:
* Joins the two anterior cerebral arteries.
* Injury here might lead to changes in personality, cognitive deficits, and potentially problems with movement or sensation.
## Footnote
Blood Flow
111
# Lab Practical #2
What artery?
| *green*
**Pontine arteries**:
* Supply blood to the pons, and an injury could cause various neurological deficits like paralysis, difficulty swallowing, and disturbances in eye movement.
## Footnote
Blood Flow
112
# Lab Practical #2
What artery?
| *green*
**Anterior inferior cerebellar artery**:
* Supplies the anterior and inferior portions of the cerebellum.
* Damage may cause balance and coordination issues, as well as hearing problems or facial weakness.
## Footnote
Blood Flow
113
# Lab Practical #2
What artery?
| *green*
**Superior cerebellar artery**:
* Supplies the superior part of the cerebellum.
* An injury here could result in coordination difficulties, tremors, and problems with voluntary movement.
## Footnote
Blood Flow
114
# Lab Practical #2
**Lateral ventricle**:
* The brain's largest ventricles, consisting of two, one in each hemisphere.
* They produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and are located deep within the cerebral hemispheres.
## Footnote
Ventricular system
115
# Lab Practical #2
**Interventricular foramen/ foramen** of Monro (on paper):
* These are small channels connecting the lateral ventricles to the third ventricle.
* They allow for the flow of cerebrospinal fluid between these ventricles.
## Footnote
Ventricular system
116
# Lab Practical #2
**Third ventricle**:
* A narrow cavity in the midline of the brain, positioned between the two thalami.
* It communicates with the lateral ventricles via the interventricular foramina and with the fourth ventricle through the cerebral aqueduct.
## Footnote
Ventricular system
117
# Lab Practical #2
**Cerebral aqueduct**:
* Also known as the aqueduct of Sylvius, it's a slender canal that connects the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle.
* It runs through the midbrain and allows the flow of cerebrospinal fluid.
## Footnote
Ventricular system
118
# Lab Practical #2
**Fourth ventricle**:
* Located between the brainstem and the cerebellum, the fourth ventricle is continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord.
* It's responsible for producing cerebrospinal fluid and allows it to flow around the brain and spinal cord.
## Footnote
Ventricular system
119
# Lab Practical #2
**Projection fibers**:
* These fibers carry information to and from the cerebral cortex and other parts of the brain and spinal cord.
* They project vertically, connecting the cortex to subcortical structures or to the brainstem and spinal cord.
* For example, the corticospinal tract is a projection fiber that carries motor signals from the motor cortex to the spinal cord, controlling voluntary movements.
120
# Lab Practical #2
What kind of fibers
| *green*
**Association fibers**:
* These fibers connect different parts of the cerebral cortex within the same hemisphere.
* They're responsible for communication between different regions within a hemisphere, enabling functions like language, memory, and perception.
* There are short association fibers, connecting adjacent gyri, and long association fibers, linking more distant cortical areas. The arcuate fasciculus, for instance, is an association fiber that connects Wernicke's area and Broca's area, playing a role in language processing.
121
# Lab Practical #2
| *blue*
**Internal capsule** and their function:
* This is a compact bundle of projection fibers that pass between the thalamus and various cortical areas.
* It's a crucial pathway for motor and sensory information traveling to and from the cerebral cortex.
* The internal capsule contains both ascending fibers (sensory inputs) and descending fibers (motor outputs), including the corticospinal tract, thalamocortical fibers, and more.
122
# Lab Practical #2
What loop?
**Goal Directed Behavior Loop**:
* Evaluating information for making decisions, planning and choosing actions
* Head of caudate = Part of decision making loop
123
# Lab Practical #2
What loop?
**Social Behavior Loop**:
* Head of caudate is part of loop that recognizes social cues, regulates self control, and parses out relevant from irrelevant information
124
# Lab Practical #2
What loop?
**Emotion Loop**
* Loop is responsible for integrating emotions and facial expression (partly responsible for mask like face), seeking rewards, predictions when outcome is unknown, addictions.
* Basal ganglia stroke = depression, emotional blunting
125
# Lab Practical #2
Differentiate between oculomotor and motor loops.
**Oculomotor Loop**:
* Body of the caudate is part of an oculomotor loop
* Makes decision about spatial attention and eye movements; specifically determining weather to use fast eye movements to direct attention towards an object
* In basal ganglia pathology: demonstrate impaired saccadic eye movements
**Motor Loops**: Direct
* **Direct / GO Pathway**: Consists of signals transmitted from the cortex to putamen/ substantia nigra reticulata to Globus pallidus, to ventrolateral (VL) nucleus of the thalamus, and back to cortex
* Serves to activate the motor and premotor cortex and assists in the initiation of voluntary movement.
* **Motor Loops**:
* **Indirect / NoGo**: Through the BG involves the GPe, subthalamic nucleus, GPi, substantia nigra reticuclata.
* Serves to decrease thalamocortical activation.
* Suppresses unwanted movements.
