language - bilingual processing

Question 1

define bilingualism (de Groot, 2015)

Answer 1

an individual’s ability (and actual practice) of communicating in two languages and the linguistic knowledge base that enables this ability

Question 2

3 types of bilingual

Answer 2

simultaneous bilingual = more than 1 language learnt from birth

early sequential bilingual
= learning a 2nd language after a 1st language early in life

late sequential bilingual = learning a 2nd language after a 1st language later in life

Question 3

types of bilingual - learning of L2 (second langage)

Answer 3

second language (L2) learning in a natural environment e.g., moving to a new country

second language (L2) learning at school e.g., only using the L2 at school in class

Question 4

balanced vs unbalanced bilingualism

Answer 4

balanced/unbalanced bilingual = the way the language is acquired and used will affect how that language is represented in the mind
= balanced bilingual uses both languages equally

Question 5

features common to all bilinguals

Answer 5

languages affect each other e.g. speaking a second language can affect your first one

• effects of different languages on perception of colour
• mental representation of time
• expressions
• theory of mind
• executive function

Question 6

3 theories of lexicons and bilingualism

Answer 6

separate lexicons:

• co-ordinate systems
• separate lexicons with separate semantic stores

one lexicon:

• compound system = all representations link to the same semantic store
• subordinative system = first language (L1) links to semantic store - second language (L2) links to L1

Question 7

co-ordinate systems of lexicon

Answer 7

separate lexicons with separate referents

L1 orthographic and phonological representations <–> L1 semantic representations

L2 orthographic and phonological representations <–> L2 semantic representations

Question 8

compound system of lexicons

Answer 8

all representations link to the same referent

L1 orthographic and phonological representations + L2 orthographic and phonological representations <–> semantic representations

Question 9

subordinative system of lexicons

Answer 9

L2 orthographic & phonological <–> L1 orthographic and phonological <–> semantic representations

L2 links to L1 which links to semantic referent

Question 10

evidence of shared and separate semantic stores - fused vs separate

Answer 10

Lambert et al (1958)

method:

French-English Bilinguals classified into:

• 1 group who learnt their languages in ‘separate’ contexts (e.g. learning french whilst in france and english in england)
• 1 group who learnt their languages in a ‘fused’ context (e.g. learnt french and english in france)

participants rated house, drink, poor, me and their French equivalents along semantic dimensions e.g. fast–slow, large–small

results:

• ‘fused’ group showed less difference in their ratings than the ‘separate’ group

conclusion:

• ‘fused’ group had a shared semantic store
• ‘separate’ group had a semantic store linked to each language

Question 11

lexicosemantic representation

Answer 11

representation of meaning in a lexicon

Question 12

bilingual lexicosemantic representation

Answer 12

pure subordinative, compound, or coordinate bilingualism is highly unlikely

representation differs depending on:

• monolingual or bilingual
• context in which languages acquired
• level of L2 proficiency
• L2 learning strategy
• word type
• delay between current and previous use

Question 13

language switch costs study

Answer 13

Kolers (1966)

participants say name of image in English with a red background or in French when it has a blue background

slower to name images in mixed lists than when they are all to be named in one language

Question 14

what does language switch cost show about number of lexicons

Answer 14

languages can be switched on or off
effort needed to switch between languages indicated by a delay in production

separate lexicons (language independent)

Question 15

opposing evidence for language switch costs

Answer 15

Preston and Lambert (1969)

if languages can be switched on or off interference should not be found between language only within languages

evidence of between language interference

one unified lexicon (language interdependent)

Question 16

language independent view

Answer 16

2 lexicons

no competition between languages (L1 and L2)

competition within a language (within L1)

Question 17

language interdependent view

Answer 17

1 lexicon

competition between L1 and L2

competition within a language too

Question 18

bilingual stroop task

Answer 18

Preston and Lambert (1969)

english-french bilinguals

congruent, incongruent, and neutral (asterisks) conditions with both languages used

results:

slower responses to colour words compared to asterisks regardless of the language of the word or the response language

conclusions:

evidence that for a bilingual trying to name the colour of a word produces interference regardless of the language the word is written in or the language of the response

bilinguals do not switch off one of their languages

interference is experienced between languages and within languages

one unified lexicon (Language interdependent)

Question 19

revised hierarchical model (RHM) of bilingual processing

Answer 19

Kroll & Stewart (1994)

L2 words stored in L2 lexicon that initially links to L1 lexicon

as proficiency increases L2 lexicon develops direct links with semantics

Question 20

predictions from RHM (3)

Answer 20

assumes links from L2 to L1 are stronger than links from L1 to L2

• translating from L2 to L1 is faster than L1 to L2
• translating from L2 to L1 should be faster than picture naming for beginners
• translating from L2 to L1 should be no faster than picture naming for proficient L2 speakers

Question 21

test of translation between L1 and L2 speeds

Answer 21

used lists with random organisation

L2–> L1 = faster than L1 –> L2

in line with RHM

Question 22

test of L1 lexicon linked to semantics, not L2

Answer 22

use of lists organised by semantics for translation

only L1 –> L2 translation affected by semantics

suggests L1 is linked to semantics but not L2

activation of semantics in the L1–>L2 condition interferes with translation

Question 23

test of translation and picture naming in beginners

Answer 23

picture naming requires semantic representations to be activated

picture naming in L2 for beginners:
L2 o+p –> L1 o+p <–> semantics
L2 –> L1 link is weak, L1 <–> semantics = strong

picture naming in L2 for prolific speakers:
L2 o+p <–> L1 o+p <–> semantics <–> L2 o+p
all 3 components all interlinked strongly

Chen and Leung 1989; Kroll and Curley 1988

results:

picture naming in L2 was slower than translation from L1 to L2 for beginner speakers but not for proficient speakers

conclusions:

links between the semantic store and L2 lexicons develop as speakers become more proficient

Question 24

test of priming effects from L2 –> L1 and L1 –> L2 according to RHM

Answer 24

Priming effects

L2 –> L1 links are stronger than L1 –> L2
will reaction times for L1 primes then L2 targets be faster than L2 primes then L1 targets

translation priming:
activate L1 prime

• activates semantics (strong link)
• activates L2 lexical (this is a weak link)
  L1 –> L2

activate L2 prime

• activates L1 lexical - strong link
• semantic link doesn’t need to be activated for translation but probably are (this is from L1 not from L2)

Question 25

challenges to the RHM - priming effects

Answer 25

Schoonbaert et al (2009) L2 --> L1 should be stronger than L1 --> L2 BUT found L1 --> L2 links and smaller effects from L2 --> L1

Question 26

semantic priming and the RHM - testing this with priming task

Answer 26

L2 --> L1 links are stronger than L1 --> L2 semantics are linked to L1 not L2 need to see if spreading activation works in other languages for semantic priming L1 prime ("girl") * activates semantic representation (+ spreading activations - e.g. to "boy") * links between semantics for "boy" and the L" words are weak and unlikely to activate the L2 word for "boy" * therefore no semantic priming would be found L2 prime ("jongen") * activates L1 word "boy" * this then activates semantic for "boy" * this can then spread activation to "girl" * therefore when L1 target "girl" is presented, response to it will be quick

Question 27

semantic priming in the RHM summary

Answer 27

* semantic priming effects should be ‘asymmetrical’ * semantic priming should be found from L2 -> L1 but not from L1 -> L2 effects have been found that support the RHM: * de Groot and Nas (1991) failed to find cross ­language semantic priming effects from L1 to L2 in Dutch–English bilinguals effects have been found that do not support the RHM: * Perea et al (2008) found cross­ language semantic priming effects for both directions in balanced Basque–Spanish and Spanish– Basque bilinguals

Question 28

challenges to the RHM - semantic priming effects

Answer 28

Schoonbaert et al (2009) Semantic priming effects found from both L1 -> L2 and L2 -> L1 numerically larger from L1 -> L2

Question 29

what does the RHM account for or not

Answer 29

DOES: * effects seen in the development of proficiency - beginners vs experienced NOT: * effects from priming studies don't fit RHM assumptions

Question 30

bilingual interactive activation model (BIA+)

Answer 30

Dijkstra & Van Heuven (2002) - computational model - 1 lexicon - node = lexical items, belonging to one or the other language --> language node is connected to all words in that language language word letter feature - activation = bottom up --> from features to words ( feature - letter - word - language) - feedback = top down (language - word - letter - feature) recognition of a word inhibits activation of other words activation of letters is not language selective --> all words that match the input are activated regardless of language once a word in one language is activated all the words in the other language are inhibited

Question 31

BIA+ - semantic activation

Answer 31

at the word level semantic representations linked to words are activated selection of an English word inhibits Dutch words --> but a semantically related Dutch target may be recognised quickly due to the activation of related semantic representations

Question 32

BIA+ - resting levels

Answer 32

words have ‘resting levels’ that are adjusted based on proficiency, frequency etc. - high frequency = high resting level = quick activation - if dominant L1 --> L1 words have a higher resting activation than L2 words, reach threshold for selection with less activation

Question 33

translation priming effects in BIA+

Answer 33

translation priming effects found: * from L1 -> L2 Smaller effects from L2 -> L1 (Schoonbaert et al., 2009) * from L1 -> L2 only (De Groot and Nas, 1991; Gollan et al., 1997) BIA+: * account for the asymmetrical translation priming effects via the slower activation of L2 words due to the lower resting activity * takes longer for the L2 ‘jongen’ to reach the threshold for activation than the L1 ‘boy’ resulting in smaller priming effects

Question 34

BIA+ --> switch costs study

Answer 34

Grainger & Beauvillain (1987); Von Studnitz & Green (1997) method: Cross Language Lexical Descision Task – press a button when you see a word you recognise results: slower to recognise words in a mixed list (both languages) because one language is inhibited

Question 35

semantic priming effects and the BIA+

Answer 35

Schoonbaert et al (2009) BIA+ model predicts that symmetrical effects would be seen for L1 -> L2 and L2 -> L1 semantic priming due to the activation of semantic representations for words of both languages

Question 36

3 things BIA+ can account for

Answer 36

asymmetrical translation priming effects switch costs semantic priming effects

Question 37

the bilingual lexicon two models comparison

Answer 37

evidence suggests that both languages are activated when a bilingual is processing language, regardless of the target language “language non selective hypothesis” Models of bilingual processing are divided on the question of whether there are 2 separate lexicons or 1: * models with 2 lexicons predict competition within languages (RHM - Kroll & Stewart, 1994) * models with 1 lexicon predict competition between and within languages (BIA+ - Dijkstra and Van Heuven, 2002)

Question 38

cognitive advantages of bilingualism

Answer 38

neurocognitive adaptation to bilingualism mechanisms are a result of the way the brain handles and uses the languages at one's disposal languages are constantly and jointly active, which in turn creates a state of competition for both language comprehension and production

Question 39

consequences of having more than one language - the BIA+ model

Answer 39

inhibitory feature of the ‘language node’ in the BIA+ model provides an account of how competition between languages might provide bilinguals with stronger inhibitory control compared to monolinguals language node is assumed to be domain general – not specific to language – suggesting that advantages from inhibiting a language may transfer to non verbal cognitive control

Question 40

consequences of having more than one language - competition and inhibition - methodology

Answer 40

Blumenfield and Marian (2013) tested language competition between languages and inhibitory control * competition between languages was tested using a visual world paradigm * inhibitory control was tested using a Simon Task Visual World Paradigm: * Spanish-English bilinguals listened to words whilst viewing a grid with images * Bilingual Spanish-English participants should be distracted by the image of a thumb when hearing pool because the Spanish word for thumb is pulgar * Participants who look at the thumb are assumed to be experiencing cross language competition from the phonological competitor Simon task: * participants have to press a key on a keyboard in response to the direction of arrows * when the direction of the arrow matches the side of the screen it is congruent * when the direction of the arrow does not match the side of the screen it is incongruent * for incongruent responses the participant has to inhibit the ‘inappropriate’ response that would match the position of the arrow * typically congruent responses are faster than incongruent responses * a person with a small difference between congruent and incongruent responses has strong inhibitory processing

Question 41

consequences of having more than one language - competition and inhibition - study results

Answer 41

Visual World Paradigm: proficient = more distracted by image in other language (cross language competitor) domain specific effect Simon task proficient = smaller Simon effect = better inhibitory control domain general effect conclusions: negative correlation between Simon effect ad looking at cross language competitor means bilinguals are distracted by second language and have better inhibitory processing shows link between cross language competition and inhibitory processing

Question 42

cognitive advantages and disadvantages of bilingualism - issues with research into this

Answer 42

lots of evidence for cognitive advantages, but also disadvantages Judith Kroll argues that: * much of the previous work has been correlational * research looking at the causal mechanisms is sparse * whether advantages are seen or not may depend on the proficiency of the bilingual, how they learnt their language and how we measure it

Question 43

reasons for failures to find cognitive advantages for bilinguals (6)

Answer 43

- differences in tasks - differences in Level of proficiency - differences in the age at which the second language was learnt - Social Economic Status - age of the person when tested - differences between using and knowing a second language