Last Minute Flashcards
(154 cards)
1
Q
What are the research studies for conformity?
A
Sherif -> auto kinetic effect
Asch -> line judgement
2
Q
What variables affect conformity?
A
Group size
Unanimity
Task Difficulty
3
Q
What study researches conformity to social roles?
A
Zimbardo -> Stanford Prison Experiment
4
Q
What are the three levels of conformity?
A
Compliance (NSI)
Identification
Internalisation (ISI)
5
Q
What is conformity?
A
Yielding to majority influence
Changing your attitude or behaviour due to ‘real’ or ‘imagined’ group pressure
6
Q
What is obedience?
A
A result of social influence
Acting in response to a direct order from an authority figure
7
Q
What is the difference between conformity and obedience?
A
Why we change behaviour (pressure/ order)
Who is responsible for change in behaviour (equal/ higher status)
8
Q
Who researched obedience?
A
Milgram
9
Q
Give an Asch statistic
A
74% participants conformed at least once
10
Q
Give a Milgram statistic
A
100% went up to 300V
65% went up to 450V
11
Q
Zimbardo concluded what?
A
People will readily conform to the social roles they’re expected to play, and such roles shape their attitudes/ behaviour.
12
Q
Give 2/6 Milgram variations with their obedience rate %
A
Seedy offices (47.5%)
Teacher+learner in same room (40%)
Teacher force learner onto plate (30%)
Teacher has support from two other confederates who refuse (10%)
Teacher paired with confederate who threw switches (92.5%)
Teacher prodded by telephone (20.5%)
13
Q
What are the 2 explanations for obedience?
A
Legitimacy of authority
The Agentic State
14
Q
What are the three situational variables affecting obedience?
A
Proximity
Location
Uniform
15
Q
What is a dispositional explanation of obedience?
A
Adorno - The Authoritarian Personality
16
Q
How did Adorno investigate the causes of the Authoritarian personality?
A
2000 middle class white Americans
Facism (F-scale) questionnaire
Higher score tended to show the characteristics
Supported his theory
17
Q
In what 2 ways may people resist social influence?
A
Social support
Locus of Control
18
Q
What is an Internal LOC?
A
They’re in control of what happens to them.
Less likely to conform/ obey
More resistant to social influences
19
Q
What is an External LOC?
A
Fate and luck. They have almost no control in what happens to them.
More likely to conform/ obey
Less resistant to social influences
20
Q
What research supports the different LOCs?
A
A replication of Milgram found that more internals refused to obey to full voltage than externals by a difference of 14%.
21
Q
In which three ways can minority influence happen?
A
Commitment
Consistency
Flexibility
22
Q
What is the snowball effect?
A
Minority influence -> the more it happens, the faster the rate of conversion
23
Q
Give 1/2 studies that researched minority influence?
A
Moscovici et al -> slides. Via consistency
Nemeth and Brilmayer’s -> ski mock jury. Via compromise
24
Q
Social change occurs when…
A
… whole societies rather than just individuals adopt new attitudes, beliefs, and ways of doing things. They behave differently.
25
What 7 WAYS can social change occur?
Drawing attention
Consistency
Deeper processing
Augmentation principle
Snowball effect
Social cryptoamnesia
26
Social change, along with the 7 WAYS, can occur through these 3 ways:
Minority influence
Conformity
Obedience
27
Which study investigated if social influences led to a reduction in energy consumption in community via conformity via NSI?
Nolan et al (2008)
28
Why might people show NSI (liked/ accepted)?
Socially rewarding
Avoid punishment
29
Why might people show ISI (knowledge/ right)?
Act appropriately
Avoid standing out
30
What are the 4 definitions of abnormality?
Statistical infrequency
Deviation from social norms
Failure to function adequately
Deviation from Ideal mental health
31
Phobia characteristics: Emotional
Fear
Anxiety
32
Phobia characteristics: Behavioural
Avoidance
Panic
33
Phobia characteristics: Cognitive
Irrational beliefs
Selective attention
34
The Behavioural approach to explaining phobias?
Mowrer’s two-process model
1) Learning a phobia by classical conditioning
2) Maintaining a phobia by operant conditioning (positive and negative reinforcement)
35
What are the two behavioural phobia treatments?
Systematic Desensitisation (deep relaxation techniques, anxiety hierarchy)
Flooding (extreme exposure, exhaustion)
36
Depression characteristics: Emotional
Lowered mood
Low self-esteem
Anger
37
Depression characteristics: Behavioural
Reduced energy or lethargy
Disruption to sleep
Disruption to eating
38
Depression characteristics: cognitive
Negative thoughts/ schema
Irrationality
Poor concentration
39
What are the two ways the cognitive approach can explain depression?
1) Ellis’ ABC model (Activating event, belief, consequences)
2) Beck’s cognitive theory (cognitive triad… neg. views of the world, oneself, and future)
40
Explain CBT as a cognitive approach in treating depression?
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
TWO FORMS:
REBT (ABC… Dispute and Effect. Logical, empirical, and pragmatic disputing)
Catastrophising to interpreting rationally
Another form based on Beck’s negative triad (it is identified and challenged/ the reality is tested)
41
What three psychological disorders are studied in Psychopathology?
Phobias, Depression, OCD
42
Emotional characteristics: OCD
Anxiety
Guilt and Disgust
43
Behavioural characteristics: OCD
Compulsions
Avoidance
44
Cognitive characteristics: OCD
Obsessions
Insight
45
What is polygenic? OCD
OCD caused by several genes, maybe up to 230, rather than a single gene
46
Genetic explanation for OCD? Give the two genes
SERT gene -> mutated in OCD, increases serotonin re uptake into the neuron, decreasing serotonin in the synapse.
COMT gene -> mutated in OCD, decreases COMT activity, increasing dopamine.
47
What are the two neural explanations for OCD?
Abnormal levels of neurotransmitters (eg. serotonin is low or disrupted)
Abnormal brain circuits
48
Explain abnormal brain circuits in neural explanations for OCD… worry circuit
Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) sends signals to the Thalamus about worrying things.
These are usually suppressed by the caudate nucleus (part of the basal ganglia) if deemed irrelevant or unimportant.
When the caudate nucleus is damaged, it fails to suppress signals. The Thalamus is alerted, making us take action. This then sends signals back to the OFC, acting as a ‘worry circuit’.
49
What did Zohar et al find?
Serotonin-increasing drugs benefitial for up to 60% OCD patients.
BUT other studies have found 50%.
50
Biological therapies for OCD - drug therapy.
What do SSRIs do?
SSRIs block the re-uptake of serotonin, so it remains active at the synapse and stimulates the post-synaptic neuron, reducing anxiety.
51
Biological therapies for OCD - drug therapy.
What do BZs do?
BZs slow down CNS activity, by enhancing GABA activity.
GABA locks onto receptor sites outside the neuron, allowing chloride ions to flow into it.
52
Are drugs for OCD treatment effective?
Meta study found more effective than placebos.
BUT
90% relapse rates? So temporary.
53
Are drugs for OCD appropriate?
Unpleasant side effects
Cheap and easily manufactured.
54
Implication of psychological research for the economy?
Depression and OCD can impact ability to function adequately/ work.
Effective treatments would prevent this.
55
Pro and con of statistical infrequency?
Works well with objective data
Cut-off point unclear
56
Pro and con of deviation from social norms
Context of social norms
Desirable/ undesirable behaviour?
Social norms change over time, some for the better
57
Pro and con of failure to function adequately (Rosenhan and Seligman VIOLUMS)
Subjectivity included
Features may be normal in some situations, like grief in personal distress.
How extreme should behaviour be?
Cultural differences
58
Pro and Con of deviation from ideal mental health (PAPERS Jahoda)
Most people don’t meet these ideals all the time.
Criteria difficult to measure
59
Define attachment
Strong, long-lasting, two-way emotional bond between two people
60
What is the infant attachment cycle?
Baby has need -> baby cries -> need met by caregiver -> trust develops
61
What’s the difference between reciprocity and interactional synchrony?
Reciprocity = the actions of one person get a response from the other.
Interactional synchrony = behaviour is carried out at the same time.
62
What are alert phases?
Babies begin to have these at 3-4 weeks, and increase from 3 months.
Babies instigate reciprocity, described by Brazelton as a ‘dance’. This develops into an emotional connection between the infant and caregiver.
63
What are the 3 research studies into caregiver-infant interactions?
Meltzoff and Moore (interactional synchrony, 3 facial expressions)
Brazelton (interactional synchrony, phases revelled)
Tronick et al (still face)
64
What were the three phases of play revealed by Brazelton?
Attention and build-up
Recovery
Turning away
65
What were the three stages to the Tronick et al still face study?
Normal face-to-face interaction
Still-face episode
Reunion episode, resumed normal interaction
66
What did Meltzoff and Moore find?
Association between infant and adult behaviour.
Later study found similar results with younger babies, suggesting behaviour is innate.
67
Give a pro and con of Meltzoff and Moore.
Pro) Controlled observation, internally valid.
Filmed, high inter-rater reliability
Limited expressions increased accuracy in conclusions
Replicable study
Con) Adult wasn’t caregiver
Lab setting
68
What did Shaffer and Emerson do?
Longitudinal study
60 infants, from working-class area of Glasgow.
Observed every four weeks until 1 years old, then again at 18 months.
Attachment measured using separation and stranger anxiety.
69
What were Schaffer and Emerson’s 4 attachment stages?
Asocial (0-2)
Indiscriminate (2-7)
Specific (7-12)
Multiple (short after specific… 29% within a month)
70
What did Field do and find?
Studied how fathers and mothers interacted with their children.
Filmed.
Fathers can be emotion-based attachment figures in the same way as mothers, but only if they have the role of the primary caregiver.
71
What did Grossman et al do and find?
Attachment studied from infancy to teens.
Fathers have a play and stimulation role, and mothers have an emotional development role.
72
Why might biology have caused more mothers to be primary caregivers?
Oestrogen linked to caring and emotional sensitivity.
73
What did Lorenz do?
Lorenz -> imprinting.
Half eggs under goose mother, half in incubator as him as parent. They followed him or mother.
After hatching, he mixed them up and they continued to follow him or mother.
74
What did Lorenz conclude?
Imprinting is species-specific, genetically determined behaviour.
It occurs during a brief critical period of 24hrs, and is irreversible.
75
What did Harlow do?
16 infant rhesus monkeys studied for 165 days.
8 monkeys = wire surrogate had food. 8 monkeys = cloth surrogate had food.
76
What did Harlow find?
All monkeys preferred the cloth despite food.
Meaning ‘contact comfort’ was more important.
77
How could Harlow’s study support the critical period?
If monkeys spent time with peers before the age of 3 months, they seemed to recover.
Having more than 6 months with the wire substitute created permanent damage.
78
Who studied learning theory in human attachment?
Dollar and Miller
79
What did Dollard and Miller believe?
Attachments driven by food (‘cupboard love’)
80
Explain classical conditioning under the learning theory for human attachment:
Two stimuli associated together to respond to one and the same way we’ve always responded to the other.
81
Explain operant conditioning under the learning theory for human attachment:
Learning from consequences.
Reinforced (rewarded) behaviour will be repeated, and punished behaviour is less likely to be repeated.
82
Learning theory is drawn from drive reduction. What is drive reduction?
Primary drives (like hunger) are innate biological needs which motivate us to survive.
Attachment with the caregiver becomes the secondary driver.
83
What did Bowlby think about the learning theory? (Cupboard love)
He rejected it.
He believed attachment was a biological and instinctive survival mechanism (evolutionary advantage).
He believed animal studies could be generalised to humans.
84
Give the 4 subtitles under Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment:
Monotropy
Social releasers
Critical period
Bowlby’s ‘internal working model’
85
What is monotropy?
What are the two laws?
Attachment with a single caregiver/ primary attachment is different and most important.
Law of continuity (predictability of care increases attachment quality)
Law of accumulated separation (interrupted care adds up… safest dose is zero)
86
What are social releasers?
Designed to activate caregivers (eg. smiling, crying).
Bonds are formed with adults most sensitive to these in a two-way process.
This is reciprocal and hard-wired in both.
87
What critical period did Bowlby give?
Limited time of 12 months, then impossible.
Later reviewed it to critical period and changed to 6months to 2yrs, after which it would become harder.
88
What is Bowlby’s internal working model?
One special monotropic relationship provides a template for the rules and expectations of future relationships and bringing up their future children
89
Give a pro and con of Bowlby’s theory of attachment
Influential, changing how young children are looked after.
Brazelton and Trinick provide evidence of importance of social releasers in forming bonds.
Ethnocentric, not culturally valid.
Ignores father’s role.
Ignores factors like traits inherited impacting attachment quality.
90
What did Mary Ainsworth strange situation do?
Studied 100 middle class American mothers and babies.
Controlled observation.
8 pre-determined episodes known as the strange situation.
91
What did observers of Strange situation note? Give 3/5
Proximity seeking
Exploration and safe base behaviour
Stranger anxiety
Separation anxiety
Reunion behaviour
92
What three attachment types did Ainsworth find?
Secure
Insecurely attached-avoidant
Insecurely attached-resistant
93
Give the percentage of **British** babies for:
Secure
Avoidant
Resistant
Secure about 75%
Avoidant about 22%
Resistant about 3%
94
In secure attachment:
Secure base?
Separation anxiety?
Stranger anxiety?
Secure base? Yes
Separation anxiety? Moderate
Stranger anxiety? Moderate
95
In avoidant attachment:
Secure base?
Separation anxiety?
Stranger anxiety?
Secure base? None
Separation anxiety? Little
Stranger anxiety? Little
96
In resistant attachment:
Secure base?
Separation anxiety?
Stranger anxiety?
Secure base? Yes, and limited exploration
Separation anxiety? Very
Stranger anxiety? Ignores
97
How did caregivers differ in:
Secure
Avoidant
Resistant
Secure = sensitive to needs
Avoidant = uninterested, rejecting
Resistant = behaved inconsistently
98
Strange Situation has high levels of inter-rater reliability, what did Bick find?
Agreement on 90% of cases
99
What did Van ljzendoorn and Kroonenberg do?
Meta analysis, comparing results of 32 studies using the Stranger Situation in 8 different countries.
Attachment types within both between and within cultures were studied.
Around 2000 babies were included.
100
Give 2/4 bullet point findings of cultural variations in attachment (Van ljzendoorn and Kroonenberg)
1) Secure most common in all countries (highest UK 75%, lowest China 50%)
2) Avoidant most common in West Germany (50%), lowest Japan (5%)
3) Resistant most common in Israel (29%), and Japan (27%), Lowest in UK (3%).
4) Difference in culture was 1.5x greater than the variation between different cultures
101
In the meta analysis for cultural variations in attachment, what can be concluded about the overall consistency in secure atttachments?
May be a universal characteristic.
However, cultural differences do exist which suggests child-rearing practices may affect attachment types.
102
What could be a disadvantage of the meta analysis in cultural variations if attachment?
Studies were done by other researchers, so the possible differences in environments could have reduced internal validity.
103
Explain the difference between separation and deprivation in Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?
Separation (child temporarily not with mother)
Deprivation (deprivation of emotional care)
104
Bowlby believed that if a child is deprived of emotional care in the critical period, then…
… psychological damage would follow
105
What did Bowlby’s 44 thieves study the link between under his theory of maternal deprivation?
He studied the link between affectionless psychopathy and maternal deprivation.
106
What did Bowlby’s 44 thieves study under maternal deprivation find?
88 children, 44 thieves + 44 control
14/44 described as affectionless psychopaths. 12 of these 14 had experienced prolonged separation from their mothers in the critical period (suggests attachment disruption has long lasting effects)
107
What are the two effects of development on maternal deprivation?
**Intellectual development** - MD an lower intelligence link
**Emotional development: Affectionless psychopathy** - inability to have deep feelings for others, a lack of empathy, and the consequent lack of meaningful relationships
108
Why did Rutter criticise Bowlby’s 44 thieves under MD study?
Rutter said that Bowlby failed to distinguish between MD (separation) with privation (never forming an attachment to begin with)
109
Who studied Romanian Orphans and the effects of institutionalisation?
Rutter et al (2007)
110
Explain how the Romanian Orphan study worked?
Studied 165 Romanian Orphans who were adopted into UK families.
Control group of 53 British children adopted in the UK.
111
What did Rutter et al find with the Romanian Orphan study?
All Romanian children lagged behind their British counterparts in terms of physical, cognitive, and social measures. Half showed delayed intellectual development, and most were undernourished.
The mean IQ of children adopted:
Before 0.5yrs = 102
0.5 - 2= 86
2 - 4 = 77
Children adopted after 6 months showed signs of disinhibited attachment (clinginess, attention seeking etc.), and those adopted before rarely displayed it.
112
Give a PRO and CON of Rutter’s Romanian orphanage study:
Real-life application… eg. reducing caregivers in orphanages to ensure less people play a central role for the child to avoid disinhibited attachments.
Difficult to generalise findings as the orphanages were very bad.. poor conditions rather than institutionalisation studied? Lacks external validity.
113
What did Hazan and Shaver do?
Love quiz published in American newspaper to collect info about people and their early attachment experiences.
620 responses analysed
114
What did Hazan and Shaver find?
Secure attachments tended to have relationships lasting an average of 10 years.
Resistant (5 years)
Avoidant (6 years)
115
What are the two models of memory?
**MSMM** Multi-store Model of Memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin)
**WMM** The Working Memory Model (Baddeley and Hitch)
116
What are the three separate memory stores in the MSMM?
Sensory Register (SR)
Short-term memory (STM)
Long-term memory (LTM)
117
In MSMM, the memory stores are unitary meaning…
has just one part
118
MSMM What is the SR:
Capacity?
Duration?
Coding?
MSMM What is the SR:
Capacity? **Large**
Duration? **Brief, less than 0.5s**
Coding? **according to the sensory source, ie. eyes coded visually (iconic mem.) and sound coded acoustically (echoic mem.)**
119
MSMM What is the STM:
Capacity?
Duration?
Coding?
MSMM What is the STM:
Capacity? **Limited, 7+/-2**
Duration? **Short, about 18s**
Coding? **Mainly acoustic**
120
MSMM What is the LTM:
Capacity?
Duration?
Coding?
MSMM What is the LTM:
Capacity? **Potentially unlimited**
Duration? **Potentially whole life**
Coding? **mainly semantic**
121
What did Sperling do and find out about the MSMM SR in experiment 1 of 2?
Three rows of 4 lettters briefly displayed.
Participants could recall 4-5 letters, but aware of presence of more.
122
What did Sperling do and find out about the MSMM SR in experiment 2 of 2? Find?
Partial report procedure.
Trained Ps to recognise 3 tones
Briefly displayed three rows of 4 letters, then sounded one of the tones to tell them which to write down.
Ps recalled av. 75% letters in cued rows, suggesting a LARGE capacity but SHORT duration as it decays rapidly.
123
MSMM How was STM Capacity studied?
Jacob’s - digital span test
Ps repeated back lists to him, which increased in length each time:
LETTERS (7)
NUMBERS (9)
124
MSMM How was Duration STM studied?
Peterson and Peterson trigrams
Ps briefly shows trigrams and asked to recall after 3,6,9,12,15,18 seconds.
Given an INTERFERENCE task to prevent rehearsal.
3s = 80% trigrams recalled
18s = 10% trigrams recalled
125
How was MSMM STM Coding studied?
Baddeley
Ps shown and asked to recall lists shortly after.
MORE mistakes came from mixing up acoustically similar words (cat, cab) than semantically similar ones (big, huge).
126
How was MSMM LTM Capacity studied?
Hard to research… unlimited?
127
How was MSMM Duration LTM studied?
Bahrick yearbook study
Free recall) 15yrs 60%, 48yrs 30%
Photo recognition) 15 yrs 90%, 48yrs 60%
Held in LTM for a long time but some degeneration (old age?)
128
How was MSMM Coding LTM studied?
Baddeley
Ps shown and recalled word lists
129
Clive Wearing as MSMM evaluation? Pro and con
✔️ Cannot make new LTM but has some STM… shows separation in stores.
❌ Play piano (LTM) but not recognise his college (LTM), so procedural and declarative within LTM
130
What components can the WMM be divided into?
Central Executive
Phonological loop
Visio-spatial sketchpad
Episodic Buffer
131
What is Central Executive in WMM?
Capacity?
Coding?
Supervisory role
Allocated tasks to various subsystems
Capacity is limited
Coding is modality-free (any source)
132
What is Phonological Loop capacity in WMM?
Subdivisions?
Capacity is limited (acoustic for approx 2s)
Subdivided into phonological store (holds words you hear), and articulating process (silently repeating words you hear)
133
What is Visuo-spatial sketchpad in WMM?
Capacity?
Coding?
Plan/ visualise a spatial task.
Holds visual + spatial info (visual coding)
Capacity limited to 4 objects.
134
What is the Episodic Buffer?
Capacity?
Coding?
Proposed by Baddeley in 2000.
Enables CE to access information in the LTM and integrate it with info in the other systems.
4 chunk capacity
Modality free coding
Just an ‘add on’?
135
What did Baddeley’s WMM dual task performance study do and show?
Ps did visual task, then simultaneously did another task (1) moving around a hollow F shape OR 2) repeating words).
TASK 1 impaired performance, but TASK 2 didn’t.
136
What are the three types of LTM?
Episodic
Semantic
Procedural
137
What are the two explanations for forgetting?
Interference
Retrieval failure
138
Explain proactive and retroactive in Interference as an explanation for forgetting:
PROACTIVE: Old interfere w/ new similar
RETROACTIVE: New interfere w/ old similar
139
How did McGeoch and McDonald study interference?
Ps learned 10 adjectives until 100% accuracy, then another list.
Then tested again on original.
Those whose second list were synonyms to first did WORST
Those whose second list were numbers did BEST
Shows retroactive is greatest w/ similar memories
140
How did Baddeley and Hitch study interference irl?
Rugby players
Recall for games played a few weeks ago was better if players had missed games since then.
Suggests interference is the reason.
141
How did Godden and Baddeley study
CONTEXT DEPENDENT retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting?
Divers learned lists on beach if underwater, and tested on beach or underwater.
Those studied and tested in same environment did better
142
How did Carter and Cassaday study
STATE DEPENDENT retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting?
Similar design to Godden and Baddeley, but w/ mild sedative drowsy or not.
Those studied and tested word lists in same state did better than
143
What is an EWT?
Eye Witness Testimony
Description given by people of an event they’ve experienced
144
What 2 factors affect EWT accuracy?
Anxiety
Misleading information
145
Who and how did they study anxiety affecting EWT?
Johnson and Scott
Participants heard casually convo and person emerged with pen and grease (low anxiety condition)
Participants heard hostile exchange snd person emerged with knife and blood (high anxiety condition)
146
What did Johnson and Scott find?
Low anxiety condition) identified person 49% of the time
High anxiety) 33% of the time
147
Give bullet points of evaluation of anxiety affecting EWT accuracy:
Tunnel theory
Unusualness rather than anxiety
148
Yuille and Cutshall (gun shop Canada) found that anxiety…
… increased EWT accuracy.
149
Taken together, it has been suggested that the relationship between anxiety and accuracy of EWT is like an…
… inverted U (Yerkes Dodson law)
150
What did Loftus and Palmer do and find?
Shown tape of cars
More intense verb used, higher speed estimate (smashed 40.5, contacted 31.8)
Smashed also found 32% broken glass, hit 14% broken glass
151
How did Gabert et al study post event discussion?
P pairs shown same incident form different angles.
In post event discussion, 71% Ps recalled events not seen from video
152
What are the four distinct components of improving EWT Cognitive interview?
Report everything
Mental Reinstatement of original context
Changing order when recalling
Changing perspective
153
A meta analysis of 53 studies found an increase of __% in the amount of correct information in cognitive interview compared with standard interviewing techniques
81%
154
Cognitive interview economy?
Longer -> greater police funding
Successful -> lower crime rates
