Learning

Question 1

What is the process of classical conditioning?

Answer 1

It is the simplest form of associative learning like we associate two stimuli with one another.
-Before conditioning: The unconditional stimulus triggers a reflex response like salivation (which is an unconditional response). The neutral stimulus does not give this response.
-During conditioning: The unconditional stimulus and the neutral stimulus are paired together many times.
-After conditioning: Following the pairing, the neutral stimulus gives the same response as the unconditional stimulus. The neutral stimulus is now the conditioned stimulus and the response is the conditioned response.

Question 2

What is extinction?

Answer 2

When a conditioned stimulus is experienced without the unconditional stimulus over a period of time, the conditioned response is extinguished. The conditioned stimulus ceases to elicit the conditioned response, making it extinct. It has survival value as it means our learning is flexible and we can adapt.

Question 3

What is spontaneous recovery?

Answer 3

Extinct response reappears, even without new pairings with the unconditional stimulus. Usually weaker response.

Question 4

What is stimulus generalisation?

Answer 4

Sometimes we become conditioned to response to one stimulus but we find ourselves exhibiting the same response to other similar stimuli.

Question 5

Evaluate classical conditioning

Answer 5

2 strengths:
- Research evidence. Pavlov with the salivating dogs to the ring of the bell and Watson and Rayner with Little Albert who experienced fear due to a large noise and cried when presented a white rat.
- Therapeutic applications such as systematic desensitisation and flooding, which are therapies used to help get over phobias.
2 weaknesses:
- The experiments and research cannot be generalised as they were done on dogs and a child and therefore is not a true representation of the wider population.
- It is an incomplete explanation of behaviour and only how behaviours are acquired of simple behaviours but not the maintenance of it.

Question 6

Explain Pavlov’s experiment (Aims, Procedure, Findings and Conclusion)- 1927

Answer 6

Aims: Initial aim is to learn about the salivation reflex but shifted towards the broad aim of exploring conditioned reflexes (eating behaviours in dogs and how salivation becomes associated with new stimuli unrelated to food)
Procedure: Collecting saliva from the saliva glands of immobilised dogs. This was done in a lab so the amount of saliva can be observed (number of drops). Salivation is the dependent variable. Took place is a sound proof chamber. Food is the unconditional stimulus and salivation is the unconditional response and the buzzer is the neutral response. Usually paired about 20 times.
Findings: The neutral stimulus did elicit a response after it was presented for a couple of seconds, when the dogs were alter and undistracted.
Conclusion: A link is likely made between the unconditional stimulus and the neutral stimulus that occurs just before the unconditional stimulus.

Question 7

Evaluate Pavlov’s experiment

Answer 7

2 strengths:
- Good experimental controls high internal validity.
- Backed up by other studies like with Watson and Rayner (1920) shows that this does take place in humans
2 weaknesses:
-As they are dogs you cannot generalise this to human and we are much more complex.
-Poor ethics as the dogs had pointless surgeries and therefore this experiment cannot happen today.
Application:
- Helps to understand eating behaviours.

Question 8

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 8

It is the result of forming a link between a behaviour and an event. Consequence/praise can lead to an increase or decrease of the probability of a behaviour happening.

Question 9

What is the Skinner box?

Answer 9

Much of our understanding for operant conditioning come from Skinner (1948), an American who’s ideas dominated psychology in the 1940s and 1950s. He carried out research using animal testing what became known as the operant chamber or Skinner box. This contained a supply of food pellets that could be released as reinforcers when the animal learned to do something, for example operate a lever. Some operant chambers also contain electrified floors which could be used to punish behaviour. Using reinforcement and punishment, Skinner and colleagues could train the animals to learn target behaviours.

Question 10

What is reinforcement?

Answer 10

This is when an event that follows it increases the probability of a behaviour being repeated. Normally this is pleasant consequence, but remember that anything that make a behaviour more likely is reinforcement- this means that escaping from something unpleasant is also reinforcing. The event that leads to the increased likelihood of the behaviour being repeated is called a reinforcer.
Positive reinforcement: takes place when something pleasant is introduced following a behaviour. This might be something like food, money, smile or praise.
Negative reinforcement: takes place when something unpleasant, such as pain, is removed following a behaviour.

Question 11

What is primary and secondary reinforcement?

Answer 11

Some reinforcers are rewarding because they have biological significance. Like food, drink, shelter, and sex are a primary reinforcement.
However, money or an impressive job title can be just as powerful as reinforcers. This is because they are associated with primary reinforcers like how money can buy us food, these are called secondary reinforcers.

Question 12

What is punishment?

Answer 12

Punishment takes place when an event following a behaviour makes its repetition less likely. The event that leads to the decrease in likelihood of repeating the behaviour is called a punisher.
Positive punishment: takes place when something unpleasant or aversive is introduced following a behaviour, like a slap.
Negative punishment: takes place when something nice is removed, like being fined or grounded.
Some punisher are deliberately introduced by people in order to change someone’s behaviour - criminal justice system give negative punishers like prison sentences that deprive people of their freedom and labels that take away social status. Other occur naturally like touching something hot, we learn not to touch it again.

Question 13

Evaluation of Operant condition (strengths)

Answer 13

It is supported by research and studies on animals and humans. For example, Skinner did multiple experiments of animals like rats and pigeons where they would be shocked for doing incorrect behaviour. There are consistent finding regarding the ability to modify behaviour using reinforcement and punishment. In addition modern brain studies have revealed brain systems (neural correlates) that relate to reinforcement in humans (Chase et al. 2015)
It seems to be generalisable as they are able to improve the behaviours of prisoners according to Hobbs and Holt- 1976 (Token economy programme)

Question 14

Evaluation of operant conditioning (weakness)

Answer 14

It only explains how behaviours are weakened or strengthened, but not how they originate. It can explain much wider range of behaviours that classical conditioning and includes complex behaviour chains. Too simplistic
It ignores the nature side as some people might have a predisposition who don’t react to rewards.

Question 15

Application of operant conditioning

Answer 15

It is used in a range of places including schools, nurseries and other settings involving children. For example, giving a child a gold star for good work encourages them to repeat the good work. Parents often use star charts or food treats to reinforce desirable behaviours.

Question 16

What is continuous and partial reinforcement?

Answer 16

A behaviour that is said to be continuously reinforced when the reinforcer always follow the behaviour. For example, we might pay a child every time they do the washing up. Continuous reinforcement leads to rapid change of behaviour but the effects tend not to last. This is why children are paid regularly for household tasks do not usually stick to them for long.
Alternative is partial reinforcement. Here reinforcement is irregular. In a reinforcement schedule with can either vary in the ratio (how many times) or interval (how long between).

Question 17

What is fixed ratio reinforcement schedule?

Answer 17

A reinforcer is given after a specified number of behaviours, for example pay a child every seventh time they do the washing up.

Question 18

What is variable ratio reinforcement?

Answer 18

A reinforcer is given after an unpredictable number of behaviours that varies around the mean. A child on a variable ration of 3 (VR3) may therefore get paid after 1,3 or 5 instances of doing the washing up (1+3+5=9/3=3). This leads to behaviours changes that are difficult to extinguish.

Question 19

What is fixed interval reinforcement?

Answer 19

The times between reinforcers is kept constant. For example, paying a child at the end of the time interval if he has washed up one or more thing during that interval.

Question 20

What is variable interval reinforcement?

Answer 20

The time between reinforcers is varied around the mean length of time. As with fixed interval, only one behaviour per time is needed for reinforcement. So a child is again paid at the end of the time period if he washes up one or more times during interval, but the intervals will vary in length. Variable interval schedules tend to result in the most consistent behaviour.

Question 21

What is modifying behaviour?

Answer 21

(Loosest sense) any use of operant conditioning to modify behaviour can be called behaviour modification. The stricter definition is as a form of therapy in which reinforcement is systematically used to increase the number of instances of desired behaviour.
Example, sport psychology- Caddie Ford et al. (2017) assess head impact using helmet sensors in American footballers and the individual mentoring to provide reinforcement to the high-risk players. Mean impact intensity dropped by 3.9% overall and by 4.7% to the top-of-head. This behaviour modification thus improved safety.

Question 22

What is shaping?

Answer 22

Shaping is used to encourage complex behaviours. This is done by reinforcing successive approximations of the behaviour. In other words you start by reinforcing behaviour vaguely like what you are seeking, but only continue the reinforcement each time the behaviour becomes a step closer to the target behaviour. Shaping occurs in children acquire language. When babies start to babble they are initially reinforced by adult attention and praise, but this is only continues if the child goes on to produce recognisable words- and, later, sequences of word.

Question 23

Evaluation of operant conditioning (strengths)

Answer 23

It is supported by research by Skinner’s study on rats where the had to push down a lever to be rewarded with food.
Also is seems to be able to generalise to humans shown by the Token Economy Programme has improve the behaviour of prisoners according to Hibbs and Holt (1976)

Question 24

Evaluation of operant conditioning (weaknesses)

Answer 24

It ignores the nature side of the nature vs nurture debate as some people may be predisposed to not to react to rewards.
It ignores motives and personality and may be too simplistic. This is the cognitive side which is recognised by the social learning theory.

Question 25

Evaluation of operant conditioning (application)

Answer 25

It has a practical benefit for treatments for mental health problems

Question 26

What is social learning theory?

Answer 26

It is when behaviour is modelled (by a role model demonstrating the behaviour). Also observing (focused attention of modelled behaviour) and intimidation (copying the observed behaviour). Vicarious reinforcement (witness a model being rewarded for behaviour)

Question 27

What are the stages of social learning?

Answer 27

Attention, retention, reproduction and motivation

Question 28

Evaluation of social learning theory (strengths)

Answer 28

It is supported by lab research done on children and animals (Cook & Mineka’s study on monkeys that learned to fear snakes after observing monkeys on film). Can be generalised it humans as Bandura found that children would imitate aggressive role models, especially those who are the same sex.

Question 29

Evaluation of social learning theory (weaknesses)

Answer 29

It ignores the nature side of the debate as some people with predispositions and don’t need role models.
Might be unscientific as it includes motives and thought process- cannot be observed directly

Question 30

Evaluation of social leaning theory (application)

Answer 30

Explains the alleged effect of media violence on aggression, particularly children

Question 31

Social learning theory: Bandura (1961)

Answer 31

Aims: To see whether aggressive behaviour could be acquired by observing modelled behaviour
Procedure: 72 children observed aggressive and non-aggressive model, or control, the opportunity to aggress.
Findings: Children witness aggressiveness modelled specific behaviour slightly more aggressive
Conclusion: Behaviour can be acquired through observation

Question 32

Evaluation of Bandura (1961)

Answer 32

Strengths: standardised procedure and extraneous variables controlled (matching aggressiveness)
Weaknesses: Artificial environment and the Bobo Dolls were made to hit
Application: Helps psychologist understand the acquisition of aggressive behaviour.

Question 33

Bandura et al (1963)

Answer 33

Aim: Test whether cartoon/film model will have the same effect on aggression as live model.
Procedure: 96 children observed: filmed, cartoon or no aggression
Findings: No difference in aggression in these 3 conditions
Conclusion: Exposure to any modelled aggression increased likelihood of aggression

Question 34

Bandura et al (1965)

Answer 34

Aim: Test whether reinforcement and punishment of model affects the acquisition of aggression
Procedure: 66 children saw aggressive model receive reinforcement, punishment or no response
Findings: Punishment condition, less aggressive. Promise of reward, increased aggression for all
Conclusion: Vicarious punishment reduces aggression. Promised rewards are more important

Question 35

Evaluation of Bandura et al. (1963 and 1965)

Answer 35

Strengths: Extraneous variables were controlled (children tested individually) and used standardised procedure.
Weaknesses: Bandura only showed the short-term effects, and aggression towards the doll. There is a risk of demand characteristics
Application: Bandura and Sabido (2017) developed telenovelas using SLT to tackle social problems

Question 36

How do you acquire a phobia?

Answer 36

Two-process model (Mowrer-1960) they are acquired with classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning
Social learning of phobias- children may also acquire phobias by imitating adult fear response

Question 37

Evaluation of how you acquire phobias

Answer 37

Strengths: Supporting evidence from Watson and Raynor (1920) and Cook and Mineka (1989) demonstrated how phobias are learned in terms of CC and social learning
Weaknesses: Does not explain all aspects of phobias- more easily learned e.g. dangerous things in our evolutionary past.
Application: Treating phobias

Question 38

What is systematic desensitisation?

Answer 38

New response learned (counterconditioning), mew CR (relaxation), blocks anxiety (reciprocal inhibition). Done by the anxiety hierarchy, where fearful situations involving phobic stimulus are ranked. Relaxation- clients taught relaxing techniques like breathing exercises. Exposure- Client exposed to phobic stimulus, working up hierarchy whilst maintaining relaxation.

Question 39

Evaluate systematic desensitisation

Answer 39

Strengths: Gilroy et al. (2003): reduced spider phobia compared to controls and it is based off of classical conditioning (well established)
Weaknesses: Not suitable for all cases like having multiple phobias and some of the situations they play out may not be realistic

Question 40

What is flooding?

Answer 40

Immediate exposure to very frightening situation, may last 3 hours. It works by the fear response extinguished as experienced for extended period without UCS. Ethical safeguards- informed consent important, flooding is traumatic

Question 41

Evaluate flooding

Answer 41

Strength: It is cost effective- quicker, cheaper and at least as effective as other therapies and is realistic
Weakness: May not be effective for all social phobias with cognitive elements (unpleasant thoughts) and danger of spontaneous recovery

Question 42

Classic study: Watson and Rayner (1920)

Answer 42

Aim: To demonstrate the acquisition of fear response through CC.
Procedure: 11-month year old present with a white rat (condition 1) and then the white rat was paired with an unexpected loud noise (condition 2)- Little Albert
Findings: Albert showed fear of rat and similar to white fury objects
Conclusion: Fear is acquired by CC and generalises

Question 43

Evaluate the classic study: Watson and Rayner (1920)

Answer 43

Strength: Control of participant and situational variables - eliminated many extraneous variables and was reliable as it had a standardised procedure
Weaknesses: It was unethical and it is hard to generalise
Application: Shows how phobias are acquired

Question 44

Contemporary study: Becker et al (2002)

Answer 44

Aim: To investigate the impact of western style TV on eating behaviours and body satisfaction in Fijian girls
Procedure: 63 girls questioned when TV was introduced, different 65 girls after 3 years
Findings: Dysfunctional eating behaviours increased, body satisfaction decreased.
Conclusion: American TV characters became role models for Fijian girls, imitated body types

Question 45

Evaluate the contemporary study (Becker et al. 2002)

Answer 45

Strengths: Compared the groups. Rivas et al (2009) found +9 internal reliability for EAT-26
Weaknesses: Poor generalisability as distinctive Fijian culture (high BMI attractive) findings may not be generalised to other countries and there are problems with predictive validity of EAT-26
Application: suggests modelling can treat eating disorders

Question 46

Key question: Is the influence of role models and celebrities something that has caused anorexia?

Answer 46

Facts:
- Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder that may affect up to 5% of girls and young women in the UK. It is a form of intentional self-starving that begins as dieting but goes to extremes.
- The average age for onset of the illness is 16, although the age range of anorexia is between 10 and 40. Around 90% of cases are female. Most have no history of being overweight.
- Over 25% of people with anorexia are so weak that they require hospitalisation. This may involve force feeding as well as advice on healthy eating and counselling.

Psychology:
- Anorexia could be explained by Operant Conditioning. When people lose weight, they are complimented (positive reinforcement) and this conditions them into losing more and more weight. If people gain weight, they are criticised (punishment) or the compliments stop; by losing weight again, they end the criticisms (negative reinforcement).
- Social Learning Theory (SLT) would explain this by role models who are extremely thin. Bandura’s research shows that we are more influenced by role models who are the same gender as us but who have status, so young girls will be influenced by female cover models and celebrities.
- Classical Conditioning suggests that men and women may come to associate thinness (which ought to be a Neutral Stimulus) with glamour and beauty (an Unconditioned Stimulus); this happens because both get the same approval and admiration (the Unconditioned Response). Photoshopping may make extreme thinness a Conditioned Stimulus and attraction to it a Conditioned Response; this may also encourage anorexia.