Research methods Flashcards
Aims and Hypotheses
The aim of the study is a statement of what the researcher intents to investigate.
The hypothesis of the study is an idea, derived from psychological theory which contains a prediction which can be verified or disproved by some kind of investigation, usually an experiment.
A directional hypothesis indicates a direction in the prediction (one-tailed) e.g. ‘students with pets perform better than students without pets’.
A non-directional hypothesis does not indicate a direction in the prediction (two-tailed) e.g. ‘owning pets will affect students’ exam performances’.
What is sampling and what are the different types of sampling?
A sample is the participants you select from a target population (the group you are interested in) to make generalisations about.
Representative means the extent to which a sample mirrors a researcher’s target population and reflects its characteristics.
Generalisability means the extent to which their findings can be applied to the larger population of which their sample was a part.
A Volunteer sample is where participants pick themselves through newspaper adverts, noticeboards or online.
Opportunity sampling, also known as convenience sampling, uses people who are available at the time the study is carried out and willing to take part. It is based on convenience.
Random sampling is when every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected. An example of random sampling would be picking names out of a hat.
Systematic sampling is when a system is used to select participants. Picking every Nth person from all possible participants. N = the number of people in the research population / the number of people needed for the sample.
Stratified sampling is when you identify the subgroups and select participants in proportion with their occurrences.
Snowball sampling is when researchers find a few participants, and then ask them to find participants themselves and so on.
In quota sampling, researchers will be told to ensure the sample fits with certain quotas, for example they might be told to find 90 participants, with 30 of them being unemployed.
What are the different types of variables?
Independent variable (IV) – the variable the experimenter manipulates, assumed to have a direct effect on the DV.
Dependent variable (DV) – the variable the experimenter measures after making changes to the IV.
We must use operationalisation to ensure that variables are in a form that can be easily tested e.g. Educational attainment → GCSE grade in maths.
Extraneous variables are all variables, which are not the independent variable, but could affect the results of the experiment. There are two types: Situational variables (controlled through standardisation) and Participant variables (controlled through randomisation).
~~~
Experimental design
In an independent measures design (between-groups design), a group of participants are recruited and divided into 2. The first group does the experimental task with the IV set for condition 1 and the second group does the experimental task with the IV set for condition 2. The DV is measured for each group and results are compared.
In a repeated measures design (within groups), a group of participants are recruited, and the group does the experimental task with the IV set for condition 1 and then the same for condition 2. The DV is measured for each group and results are compared.
In a matched pairs design, a group of participants are recruited. We find out what sorts of people we have in the group and recruit another group that matches them one for one. The experiment is then treated like an independent measures design and the results are compared.
Lab experiment
This type of experiment is conducted in a well-controlled environment – not necessarily a laboratory – and therefore accurate and objective measurements are possible.
The researcher decides where the experiment will take place, at what time, with which participants, in what circumstances and using a standardized procedure.
Field experiment
These are conducted in the everyday (i.e. natural) environment of the participants but the situations are still artificially set up.
The experimenter still manipulates the IV, but in a real-life setting (so cannot really control extraneous variables).
Natural experiment
Natural experiments are when a naturally occurring IV is investigated that isn’t deliberately manipulated, it exists anyway.
Participants are not randomly allocated and the natural event may only occur rarely.
Case study
Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community.
Case studies are widely used in psychology and amongst the best-known ones carried out were by Sigmund Freud. He conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.
Case studies provide rich qualitative data and have high levels of ecological validity.
Correlation
Correlation means association - more precisely it is a measure of the extent to which two variables are related.
If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with an increase in the other then this is known as a positive correlation.
If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with a decrease in the other then this is known as a negative correlation.
A zero correlation occurs when there is no relationship between variables.
Interviews
Unstructured (informal) interviews are like a casual conversation. There are no set questions and the participant is given the opportunity to raise whatever topics he/she feels are relevant and ask them in their own way. In this kind of interview much qualitative data is likely to be collected.
Structured (formal) interviews are like a job interview. There is a fixed, predetermined set of questions that are put to every participant in the same order and in the same way. The interviewer stays within their role and maintains social distance from the interviewee.
Semi structured is when some on the questions are decided before hand some develop as the interview go on.
Questionnaires
Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview. They can be carried out face to face, by telephone or post.
The questions asked can be open ended, allowing flexibility in the respondent’s answers, or they can be more tightly structured requiring short answers or a choice of answers from given alternatives.
The choice of questions is important because of the need to avoid bias or ambiguity in the questions, ‘leading’ the respondent, or causing offence.
Observations
Covert observation is where the researcher doesn’t tell the participants that they are being observed until after the study is complete. There could be ethical problems or deception and consent with this particular method of observation.
Overt observation is where a researcher tells the participants that they are being observed and what they are being observed for.
Controlled: behaviour is observed under controlled laboratory conditions (e.g. Bandura’s Bobo doll study).
Natural: Here spontaneous behaviour is recorded in a natural setting.
Participant: Here the observer has direct contact with the group of people they are observing. The researcher becomes a member of the group they are researching.
Non-participant (aka “fly on the wall): The researcher does not have direct contact with the people being observed.
Types of data
Quantitative data is numerical data e.g. reaction time or number of mistakes. It represents how much or how long, how many there are of something. A tally of behavioural categories and closed questions in a questionnaire collect quantitative data.
Qualitative data is virtually any type of information that can be observed and recorded that is not numerical in nature and can be in the form of written or verbal communication. Open questions in questionnaires and accounts from observational studies collect qualitative data.
Primary data is first hand data collected for the purpose of the investigation.
Secondary data is information that has been collected by someone other than the person who is conducting the research e.g. taken from journals, books or articles.
Ethical issues
Informed consent is when participants are able to make an informed judgement about whether to take part. It causes them to guess the aims of the study and change their behaviour. To deal with it, we can gain presumptive consent or ask them to formally indicate their agreement to participate but it may invalidate the purpose of the study and it is not guaranteed that the participants would understand.
Deception should only be used when it approved by an ethics committee as it involves deliberately misleading or withholding information. Participants should be fully debriefed after the study but debriefing can’t turn the clock back.
All participants should be informed at the beginning that they have the Right to Withdraw if they ever feel distressed or uncomfortable. It causes bias as the ones that stayed are obedient and some may not withdraw as they may have been given incentives or feel like they’re spoiling the study. Researchers can offer the right to withdraw data after participation.
Participants should all have Protection from harm. The researcher should avoid risks greater than experienced in everyday life and they should stop the study if any harm is suspected. However, the harm may not be apparent at the time of the study.
Confidentiality concerns the communication of personal information. The researchers should not record any names but use numbers or false names though it may not be possible as it is sometimes possible to work out who the researchers were.
