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PSYU1101 > Learning > Flashcards

Learning Flashcards

1
Q

What is the function of learning?

A

Learning helps us to adapt to changing conditions in the world. Adaptation is the process of changing behaviour to fit changed environmental conditions.
Being taught how to do a task, and then improving on that task

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2
Q

What are the costs of learning?

A
  • delayed reproductive effort or success
  • increased juvenile vulnerability
  • increased parental investment in young
  • learning requires a much greater complexity in nervous system - requires high energy costs to maintain and serve nerve tissue
  • developmental fallibility (trial + error vs instinct)
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3
Q

Types of learning include:

A
  • -> noticing and ignoring: need to notice important events but learn to ignore events that occur repeatedly without consequence (sensitisation and habituation)
  • -> learning what events signal: need to learn when something is about to happen so that we can prepare for it (classical conditioning)
  • -> learning about the consequences of behaviour: need to learn the results of our behaviours to avoid making mistakes and repeat behaviours that produce positive outcomes; learn when and how to act (operant conditioning)
  • -> learning from others: need to learn from the results of the behaviours of others as well (observational learning)
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4
Q

Define learning

A
  • a relatively permanent change in behavioural potentiality that occurs as a result of reinforced practice
  • the ability to assess the consequences of one’s actions is fundamental to survival
  • motivation is necessary for learning behaviour to be performed
  • learning cannot be observed directly - it is inferred from observed behaviour
  • conditioning: a process of learning associations between environmental stimuli and behavioural responses
  • what it is not: referring to instincts or reflexes or changes in behaviour due to fatigue / drugs
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5
Q

what is associative learning?

A

result of learning to associate one stimulus with another (example: sound of keys jangling signifies that the dog’s owner is leaving)

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6
Q

what is non-associative learning

A
  • learning that results from the impact of one particular stimulus
  • habituation: response wanes with repeated exposure (i.e. decline in the tendency to respond to an event that has become familiar)
  • sensitisation: occurs when our response to an event increases rather than decreases with repeated exposure
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7
Q

What is classical conditioning? How it is an associative type of learning?

A
  • we learn by association
  • i.e. learning that 2 events occur together
  • classical conditioning: we learn to associate two environmental events with each other so that we can predict / expect the 2nd event to occur after we have perceived the first event
    (whereas operant conditioning is learning to associate a response that we make with its consequence)
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8
Q

Elaborate on Pavlov’s Dogs

A
  • dogs learned to salivate in response to a bell after it was paired with food
  • learn that the stimulus predicts the occurrence of a certain event and we respond accordingly
  • Before conditioning: food (US) automatically elicits salivation (UR) and the bell (CS) has no response
  • During conditioning: the bell (CS) followed by the food (US) elicits a response of salivation (UR)
  • After conditioning: the bell (conditioned stimulus) elicits the salivation (CR) without the food being present
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9
Q

Define NS, US, UR, CS, CR

A

neutral stimulus: the stimulus that, before conditioning, doesn’t naturally bring about the response of interest

unconditioned stimulus: a stimulus that elicits / triggers an unconditioned (involuntary) response

unconditioned response: an unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus occurring without prior conditioning

conditioned stimulus: previously NS that through repeated pairings with an US, now causes a CR

conditioned response: learned reaction to a CS occurring because of previous repeated pairings

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10
Q

what is acquisition?

A

the formation of a learned response to stimulus through presentation of an unconditioned stimulus

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11
Q

what is extinction?

A

elimination of a learned response by removal of the unconditioned stimulus

the CR would weaken when the CS is presented without the US

not the unlearning of the CR, but a learned inhibition of responding

spontaneous recovery = the re-emergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response (this occurs after a period of time, in the absence of any more presentations of either the CS or the US)

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12
Q

acquisition of phobias by classical conditioning

A
  • the conditioning of Little Albert to fear a white laboratory rat by making a loud clanging noise (US) every time he reached for the rat
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13
Q

what is stimulus generalisation

A

A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical to a conditioned stimulus (Albert was fearful of a rabbit, seal-fur coat, santa claus mask, etc)

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14
Q

what is stimulus discrimination

A

the learned ability to respond differently to similar stimuli

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15
Q

higher order conditioning: first ordre

A

CS1 –> US

CS1 –> CR

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16
Q

Higher order conditioning: second order

A

CS2 –> CS1

CS2 –> CR

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17
Q

elaborate on higher order conditioning

A

two factors determine the extent:

  • the similarity between the higher order stimulus and the original conditioned stimulus
  • the frequency and consistency with which the two conditioned stimuli are paired
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18
Q

What does a CS need to elicit a CR?

A
  • not just close proximity of the two events in time
  • CS must be a predictor of the arrival of the US
  • predictions are indicative of the organism being able to recognise the likelihood of the US (after a CS) –> cognitive element
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19
Q

Cognitive elements

A
  • classical conditioning only occurs when an animal has learned to set up an expectation
  • conditioning is easier when the CS is an unfamiliear event than a familiar one (no existing expectations)
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20
Q

What are two theories about how the conditioned response form?

A
  • contiguity theory

- contingency theory

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21
Q

What is contiguity theory:

A
  • theorises that when two stimuli are presented together in time, associations are formed between the two
  • temporally contiguous events tend to be associated together (therefore merely put two stimuli together in time to create a conditioned response)
  • this explains most of the data, and why it is weakened by a delay between CS and US, but there are limitations
22
Q

What is Rescorla’s contingency theory?

A

1960s

  • agreed with Pavlov that for learning to take place, the CS had to be a useful predictor of the US
  • disagreed on what made the CS a useful predictor
  • contingency: the relationship between two events, one being “contingent” or a consequence of the other event
  • -> the occurence of a future event is possible, given that one event has occurred, but cannot always be predicted with certainty
  • how does the CR form?
  • -> relies heavily on predictability and expectation and repetition
23
Q

What does contingency depend on?

A
  • reliability of the CS-US pairing

- uniqueness of the CS-US pairing (how often does the US happen without the CS?)

24
Q

What is excitatory conditioning?

A
  • relative likelihood of something occurring given that something else did
25
Q

What is inhibitory conditioning

A

relative likelihood of something NOT occurring that something else did

26
Q

What affects the acquisition of the Conditioned Response? (in addition to contiguity and contingency)

A

Sequence of the CS-US presentation: delayed conditioning, trace conditioning, simultaneous conditioning, backward conditioning)

Strength of the US (the larger the US value, the greater the conditioning)

Number of the CS-US pairings

27
Q

Opponent Process Model of Motivation arising from CC process (solomen + corbit)

A

• Emotion arousing stimuli will produce emotional responses
• Common pattern of emotional changes
• The concepts of habituation and sensitisation have been extended to emotions and motivated behaviour
• Emotional after-reaction → an emotional stimulus creates an initial response that is followed by adaptation, then opposite response
• With repeated exposure to the stimulus, the pattern changes
○ The primary affective response (a-process) habituates
○ The after-reaction (b-process) strengthens

28
Q

Opponent Process Model of Motivation arising from CC process: Common Characteristics of Emotional Reactions

A

Emotional reactions are biphasic; a primary reaction is followed by an opposite after-reaction
The primary reaction becomes weaker with repeated stimulations
The after reaction is strengthened
The opponent-process theory is homeostatic
The theory assumes that neurophysiological mechanisms involved in emotional behaviour serve to maintain emotional stability

29
Q

Solomon and Corbit - opponent process theory

A

• Examined fear and relief of skydivers before and after their jumps
• Beginners experience extreme fear as they jump, which is replaced by great relief when they land
○ With repeated jumps, the fear decreases and the post-jump pleasure increases
• Stage A (fear) decreases with more jumps
• Stage B (relief / thrill) increases with more jumps
• Hedonic-affective phenomena

Solomon (1980)
• An event that elicits a strong emotional response produces an opposite response when that event is withdrawn
• Opponent process theory: an emotional event elicits two competing responses
○ A-process: directly elicited by the stimulus
○ B-process: compensatory response to counteract the a-process → elicited to maintain homeostasis
• After many stimulations - the peak of a reduces and the peak of b gets steeper

30
Q

Overview of the opponent process:

A

• Disturb homeostasis (A process)
• Compensatory response (B process)
• Back to baseline (set point)
• Observed response (A process + B process)
• Therefore, the CR is opposite to UR (heterogenous - its not the same for everyone)
Environmental cues become CS (anticipatory response can start earlier over time with conditioning)

31
Q

Characteristics of a-processes and b-processes in opponent-process theory of emotion

A
  1. a-process is directly related to the presentation of the emotional stimulus (stimulus removal = a-process ceases immediately)
  2. b-process is slow to increase and slow to decrease (b-process begins after a-process, once stimulus is removed the b-process slowly declines)
  3. with repeated presentation of the emotional event, the b-process increases in strength and duration
    - with repeated exposure to the emotional stimulus effects of a-process become less extreme and this is because b-process becomes more extreme
32
Q

opponent process theory - drug addiction

A
  • Physiological and psychological reactions to the drug directly relate to the a- and b-processes
  • Drug effect = net effect of a-process minus b-process
  • Repeated experience with drug results in less of a ‘high’ (a-process), but withdrawal symptoms are stronger and last longer (b-process)
  • Withdrawal is so bad that re-dosing with the drug occurs
  • Addiction - person takes the drug to avoid the symptoms of withdrawal
33
Q

opponent process theory - thrill seeking behaviours

A

Stage A - euphoric rush

Stage B - decrease in euphoria, coming down form a high

Stage A’ - after repeated exposures, A’ becomes normal, there is no longer a rush, drug is needed for normalcy

Stage B’ - more physiologcially disturbing and longer lasting; abstinence agony

negative cycle

34
Q

Siegel’s theory of drug tolerance

A
  • Over time the compensatory response gets larger - thus more of the drug is required to achieve euphoria
    • Context matters however → if your change the context (i.e. the environment in which you are taking drugs), you are able to change the scale of the high from the drug
    • With repeated exposure, b-process becomes stronger and lasts longer → but changing the context makes the drug more effective
35
Q

Instrumental learning or operant conditioning is

A

learning that occurs from possible consequences of our actions

major players include Thorndike and Skinner

36
Q

Thorndike’s law of effect

A
  • learning caused by consequences
  • behaviours that had a satisfying effect were stamped in and behaviours that had an annoying effect were stamped out
  • the probability of an action repeated is strengthened when it is followed by a pleasant or satisfying consequence
  • studied cats in puzzle boxes
37
Q

Skinner’s theory

A

the consequences of behaviour determine the probability that the behaviour will occur again

emphasised that reinforcement and punishment are always defined after the fact

radical behaviourism = the factor controlling an organism’s behaviour was the consequence of the behaviour

no need to hypothesise internal processes

reinforcement contingencies: contingencies reflect conditions that must be met in order for reinforcement to be dispensed (the reinforcement must be meaningful to the organism and must follow the behaviour)

38
Q

How is operant conditioning different to classical conditioning?

A

Classical conditioning: key relationship between the 2 stimuli (food and light) which leads to a response (key relationship between the 2 stimuli which leads to a response)

Operant conditioning: stimulus occurs (light) and then a key relationship between the response and the reinforcer (pulling a lever and then receiving food) (stimulus, than a key relationship between the response and reinforcer)

39
Q

The consequence of responding in operant conditioning

A

consequence: where there is a contingent relationship between a behaviour and an event, a consequence is an event that is caused by a behaviour including (the presentation or removal of a stimulus)

40
Q

different types of stimulus events include

A

pleasant, unpleasant, neutral, positive (event added into situation), negative (event removed from situation)

41
Q

Two types of effects of behaviour consequence relationships on behaviour include

A

reinforcement: causes the response to increase in frequency
punishment: causes the response to decrease in frequency

42
Q

Positive reinforcement =

A

an appetitive stimulus is added

43
Q

Positive Punishment

A

an aversive stimulus is added

44
Q

negative punishment

A

an appetitive stimulus is removed

45
Q

negative reinforcement

A

an aversive stimulus is removed

46
Q

What is S+

A

a controlling stimulus that sets the occasion for reinforcement of an operant - responding in presence of S+ will get the outcome that is seeked

47
Q

what is S-

A

responding in presence of S- will not get the outcome that is seeked

48
Q

variables the effect operant conditioning

A
  • magnitude of reinforcer (size of reward)
  • delay of reward (the greater the delay, the weaker the learning)
  • frequency of reinforcement
  • -> continuous reinforcement: reinforcing the desired response each time it occurs -> this has problems of habituations
  • -> intermittent reinforcement: periodic administration of the reinforcement (maintains behaviours with fewer reinforcement trials but results in slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction)
  • schedule of reinforcement
  • -> ratio schedules (fixed ratio, variable ratio)
  • -> interval schedules (fixed interval, variable interval)
49
Q

Premack’s Principle

A

using a desired or high freq behaviour to reinforce a less desirable or lower freq behaviour

50
Q

Issues of punishment

A
  • Punishment does not usually result in long term behaviour change - effects are temporary
    • Punishment does not promote better, alternative behaviour
    • Punishment typically leads to escape behaviour
    • Learner may layer to fear the administrator ratehr than the association between their behaviour and the punishment
    • Punishment may not undo existing rewards for a behaviour - unless it is delivered every time
    • Punitive aggression may lead to modelling of aggression
    • Learned helplessness
51
Q

Observational learning (Bandura)

A
  • learning by watching other models or demonstrators
  • how we acquire new information by being exposed to one another in a common environment
  • proposes that we learn through imitation, and explains the speed of learning in young children

Key features of the model = appropriateness and similarity

52
Q

how to learn by observational learning?

A
  • attention
  • retention
  • reproduction
  • motivation

PSYU1101 (8 decks)

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