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Psychology > Learning > Flashcards

Learning Flashcards

1
Q

Learning

A

any relative permanent change in behaviour as a result of experience

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2
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

an organism learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a biologically relevant stimulus results in a change in the response to the previously neutral stimulus

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3
Q

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A

Stimulus that elicits a reflexive response without learning

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4
Q

Unconditioned Response (UR)

A

Reflexive unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus

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5
Q

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A

once neutral stimulus that later elicits a conditioned response

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6
Q

Conditioned Response (CR)

A

learned response that occurs to the conditioned response

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7
Q

Acquisition

A

a response is established

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8
Q

Extinction

A

reduction of a conditioned response when a conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus no longer occur together

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9
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

reoccurrence of a previously extinguished conditioned response, after some time has passed since extinction

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10
Q

Generalization

A

response that originally occurred for a specific stimulus also occurs for different but similar stimulus

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11
Q

Discrimination

A

Organism learns to respond to one original conditioned stimulus but not to new stimuli that may be similar to the original stimulus

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12
Q

Conditioned emotional responses

A

consist of emotional and psychological responses that develop to a specific object or situation

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13
Q

preparedness

A

the biological predisposition to rapidly learn a response to a particular class of stimulus

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14
Q

Conditioned taste aversions

A

acquired dislike or disgust for a food or drink because it was paired with illness

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15
Q

latent inhibition

A

frequent experience with a stimulus before it is paired with a unconditioned stimulus makes it less likely that conditioning will occur after a single episode of illness

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16
Q

operant conditioning

A

type of learning which behaviour is influenced by consequences

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17
Q

Reinforcement

A

event or reward that follows a response increases the likelihood of that response occurring again

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18
Q

law of effect

A

responses followed by satisfaction will occur again in the same situation whereas those not followed by satisfaction become less likely

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19
Q

reinforcer

A

stimulus that is contingent upon a response and that increases the probability of that response occurring again

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20
Q

punishment

A

process that decreases the future probability of a response

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21
Q

punisher

A

stimulus that is contingent upon a response and that results in a decrease in behaviour

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22
Q

positive reinforcement

A

strengthening of behaviour after potential reinforcers such as praise, money or nourishment follow that behaviour

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23
Q

negative reinforcement

A

involves the strengthening of behaviour because it removes or diminishes a stimulus

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24
Q

avoidance learning

A

type of negative reinforcement that removes the possibility that a stimulus will occur

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25
Q

Escape learning

A

occurs if a response removes a stimulus that is already presented

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26
Q

positive punishment

A

behaviour decreases in frequency because it was followed by a particular usually unpleasant stimulus

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27
Q

negative punishment

A

behaviour decreases because it removes or diminishes a particular substance

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28
Q

shaping

A

successive approximations of a specific operant response

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29
Q

chaining

A

involves linking together 2 or more shaped behaviours into a more complex action or sequence of actions

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30
Q

applied behavioural analysis

A

using close observation, prompting and reinforcement to reach behaviours often to people who experience difficulties and challenges owing to a developmental condition

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31
Q

primary reinforcers

A

reinforcing stimuli that satisfy basic motivational needs

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32
Q

secondary reinforcers

A

consist of stimuli that acquire their reinforcing effects only after we learn that they have value

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33
Q

schedules of reinforcement

A

rules that determine when reinforcement is available

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34
Q

continuous reinforcement

A

every response made results in reinforcement

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35
Q

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

A

only a certain number number of responses are rewarded or certain amount of time must pass for rewards

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36
Q

latent learning

A

learning that is not immediately expressed by a response until the organism is reinforced to do so

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37
Q

observational learning

A

changes in behaviour and knowledge that result from watching others

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38
Q

imitation

A

recreating someone else’s motor behaviour or expression, often to accomplish a specific goal

39
Q

memory

A

collection of several systems that store information in different forms for differing amount of times

40
Q

stores

A

retain information in memory without using it for any specific purpose

41
Q

control processes

A

shift information from one memory store to another

42
Q

attention

A

selects which information will be passed onto short term memory

43
Q

encoding

A

the process of storing information into the long term memory system

44
Q

retrieval

A

brings information from LTM back into STM

45
Q

sensory memory

A

memory store that accurately holds perceptual information for a very brief amount of time

46
Q

iconic memory

A

visual form of sensory memory

47
Q

echoic memory

A

auditory form of sensory memory

48
Q

short term memory

A

memory store with limited capacity and duration

49
Q

chunking

A

organizing smaller units of information into larger more meaningful units

50
Q

long term memory

A

holds information for extended periods of time, if not permanent

51
Q

serial position effect

A

first 2 things off a list and last 2 things off a list and only one maybe 2 from middle

52
Q

proactive interference

A

process in which first information is learned (first on a list)

53
Q

retroactive interference

A

most recently learned information (last on a list)

54
Q

brain areas involved in memory

A

frontal lobe, cerebral cortex, prefrontal cortex hippocampus, cerebellum

55
Q

rehearsal

A

repeating information until you do not need to remember it anymore

56
Q

working memory

A

combination of memory components that can temporarily store small amounts of information for a small period of time

57
Q

phonological loop

A

storage component of working memory that relies on rehearsal and that stores information as sounds, or an auditory code

58
Q

word length effect

A

people remember 1 syllable words better that multiple syllable words

59
Q

visuospatial sketchpad

A

storage component of working memory that maintains visual images and spatial layouts in visuospatial code

60
Q

feature binding

A

process of combining visual features into a single unit

61
Q

episodic buffer

A

a storage component of working memory that combines the images and sounds from the other 2 components into coherent story like episodes

62
Q

central executive

A

control centre of working memory coordinates attention and the exchange of information among the three storage compartments

63
Q

declarative memories

A

memories that we are consciously aware of and that can be verbalized including facts about the world and own personal experiences

64
Q

non-declarative memories

A

actions or behaviours that you can remember and perform without awareness

65
Q

episodic memories

A

declarative memories for personal experiences that seem to be organized around episodes and are recalled from a first person perspective

66
Q

semantic memories

A

declarative memories that include facts about the world

67
Q

procedural memory

A

learned patterns of muscle movements

68
Q

long term potentiation

A

demonstrated that there is an enduring increase in connectivity and transmission of neural signals between nerve cells that fire together

69
Q

consolidation

A

process of converting short term memories into long term memories in the brain

70
Q

amnesia

A

a profound loss of at least one form of memory

71
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

inability to form new memories for events occurring after a brain injury

72
Q

storage

A

refers to the time and manner in which information is retained between encoding and retrieval

73
Q

reconsolidation

A

the hippocampus functions to update, strengthen, or modify existing long-term memories

74
Q

cross-cortical storage

A

long-term declarative memories are distributed throughout the cortex of the brain, than being localized in one region

75
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

inability to remember what was already known

76
Q

shallow processing

A

encoding more superficial properties of a stimulus such as the sound or spelling a word

77
Q

deep processing

A

encoding information about an items meaning or its function

78
Q

self-reference effect

A

think about information in terms of how it relates to you

79
Q

recognition

A

identifying a stimulus or information when it is presented to you

80
Q

recall

A

retrieving information when asked but without that information being present during the retrieval process

81
Q

encoding specificity principle

A

retrieval is most effective when the conditions at the time of encoding and retrieval are the same

82
Q

context-dependent memory

A

retrieval is more effective when it takes place in the same physical setting as encoding

83
Q

state-dependent memory

A

retrieval is more effective when your internal state matches the state you were in during encoding

84
Q

mood-dependent memory

A

people remember better if their mood at retrieval matches their mood from encoding

85
Q

weapon focus

A

tendency to focus on a weapon at the expense of peripheral information including the identity of the person holding the weapon

86
Q

flashbulb memory

A

extremely vivid and detailed memory about an event and the conditions surrounding how one learned about the event

87
Q

the forgetting curve

A

most forgetting occurs right away and that the rate of forgetting eventually slows to a point where one does not seem to forget at all

88
Q

mnemonic

A

technique intended to improve memory for specific information

89
Q

method of loci

A

mnemonic that connects words to be remembered to locations along a familiar path

90
Q

acronyms

A

pronounceable words whose letters represent the initials of an important phrase or set of items

91
Q

first-letter technique

A

the first letters of a set items to spell out words that form a sentence

92
Q

dual coding

A

occurs when information is stored in more than one form

93
Q

desirable difficulties

A

techniques that make studying slower and more effortful but result in better overall remembering

94
Q

testing effect

A

finding that taking practice tests can improve exam performance

Psychology (3 decks)

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