Learning

Question 1

Which of the following do implosive therapy and flooding have in common?

Answer 1

Implosive therapy and flooding are both behavioral treatments that are premised on the principles of classical conditioning. The conditioned response is eventually extinguished through exposure to the feared stimulus, either in vivo (as in flooding) or in imagination (as in implosive therapy).

Question 2

Bandura’s social cognitive theory predicts that

Answer 2

cognitive events act as intervening variables in the acquisition of a new behavior; According to social learning theory, which was later reworked to be social cognitive theory; an individual learns a new behavior simply by observing another person engaging in that behavior.

Question 3

Bandura concluded that observational learning involves four processes, which are critical intervening variables in the acquisition of a new behavior:

Answer 3

attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Attention (i.e., attending to and accurately perceiving the behavior) and retention (i.e., symbolic processing of the modeled behavior) are cognitive processes

RRAM - kids would RRAM into bobo - ret, repro, atten, motiv

Question 4

The basic premise of Ellis’s rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)

Answer 4

The basic premise of Ellis’s rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) is that maladaptive behaviors and emotions are the result of irrational thoughts and beliefs. Thus, the primary goal of REBT is to replace the client’s irrational thoughts and beliefs with more rational, adaptive ones, which will ultimately reduce the occurrence of maladaptive behavior. Knowing that Ellis’s approach is classified as a type of cognitive-behavioral therapy would have helped you identify the correct response to this question.

Question 5

Escape conditioning

Answer 5

Escape conditioning is a type of negative reinforcement (i.e., operant conditioning) that occurs when a person’s behavior is maintained because it allows the person to escape an undesirable stimulus. In this situation, the parents’ choice to let Elmo eat something other than the disliked food is negatively reinforced because it results in termination of his tantrum.

Question 6

In classical conditioning…

Answer 6

In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (US) naturally elicits an unconditioned response (UR). A conditioned stimulus (CS) elicits a conditioned response (CR) after it has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US). In Pavlov’s studies, the tone was a conditioned stimulus (CS) because it elicited salivation (the CR) only as the result of being paired with the meat powder (the US) that naturally elicited salivation (the UR).

Question 7

arbitrary inference

Answer 7

As defined by Beck, “arbitrary inference” involves drawing a conclusion that is made in the absence of supporting evidence or in the presence of contradictory evidence.

Question 8

Musturbatory thinkin

Answer 8

“Musturbatory thinking” is a term used by Ellis that refers to a belief that certain conditions must be met in order for an individual to be happy—for example “I must be liked by everyone, and if not, I’m a terrible person.”

Question 9

Polarized,” or dichotomous, thinking

Answer 9

“Polarized,” or dichotomous, thinking involves seeing things as either black or white, with few to no shades of gray, consistent with the “all-or-none” principle.

Question 10

Personalization

Answer 10

“Personalization” involves mistakenly viewing oneself as the cause of a negative event even if it was entirely out of one’s control.

Question 11

serial position effect

Answer 11

The “serial position effect” refers to the tendency to recall items at the beginning and end of a list better than items in the middle of the list, especially when recall occurs immediately after rehearsing the list. One explanation for the serial position effect is that items in the beginning of the list have been stored in long-term memory, while those in the end of the list are still present in short-term memory.

Question 12

commonalities iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory

Answer 12

are both types of sensory memory, a brief memory that allows sensory information to be retained long enough for it to be recognized prior to transfer of important details into short-term memory

Question 13

Parallel processing

Answer 13

is the brain’s ability to take in and process multiple sources of information at once. For example, when one sees a stop sign, they do not first see the shape, then the color, then the words; instead, they process them all simultaneously

Question 14

Distributed processing

Answer 14

Distributed processing postulates multiple memory systems into which information is processed in a step-by-step manner (e.g., sensory, then short-term, then long-term)

Question 15

Proactive interference

Answer 15

Proactive interference is when previously learned information or older memories interfere with learning new information or retrieving newer memories (e.g., difficulty learning or recalling a friend’s phone number after having previously learned the old number)

Question 16

Retroactive interference

Answer 16

Retroactive interference is when new information interferes with one’s ability to recall older memories or previously learned information (e.g., a piano player learns to play a new song and then

Question 17

The Premack principle

Answer 17

The Premack principle is a type of positive reinforcement in which a high-frequency behavior is used as the reinforcer to increase the frequency of a low-frequency, less desired behavior. It is also known as “Grandma’s Rule” (e.g., “you can go out and play [a highly desired behavior] once you’ve cleaned your room [a less desired behavior]”).

Question 18

Stress inoculation training (Meichenbaum & Jaremko, 1982)

Answer 18

Stress inoculation training (Meichenbaum & Jaremko, 1982) was designed to help people deal with stressful events by increasing their coping skills. It is a cognitive-behavioral technique that consists of the three phases conceptualization/education, skill acquisition and rehearsal, and application and follow through.

Question 19

When using a continuous schedule of reinforcement to increase the occurrence of a desirable behavior, you would be most concerned about which of the following?

Answer 19

Satiation; A continuous schedule of reinforcement involves reinforcing the individual every time they emit the target response. Satiation occurs when a reinforcer loses its reinforcing value because the organism has become satisfied (satiated). It is a potential problem when using positive reinforcement, especially when the reinforcer is a primary reinforcer and is delivered on a continuous schedule.

Question 20

elaborative and maintenance rehearsal

Answer 20

Researchers interested in memory distinguish between two types of rehearsal: elaborative and maintenance. Elaborative rehearsal involves making new information meaningful in order to enhance its retention and retrieval. Relating new information to previously acquired information is one type of elaborative rehearsal. Maintenance rehearsal involves the rote repetition of information (consciously repeating new information)

Question 21

the law of effect (what is it and who proposed it)

Answer 21

According to the law of effect, a response that is followed by a “satisfying state of affairs” is more likely to be repeated. Thorndike’s experiments with cats in puzzle boxes established a connection between the consequences of a behavior and the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated, and he referred to this connection as the “law of effect.”

Question 22

Response cost

Answer 22

Response cost is used to eliminate an undesirable behavior and involves imposing a penalty or fine (i.e., removing a specific stimulus) whenever the undesirable behavior occurs. Response cost is an application of negative punishment

Question 23

Findings from studies comparing participants’ ability to recall a list of words they had memorized based on whether or not they were allowed to sleep following memorization provide support for which of the following theories?

Answer 23

Interference theory proposes that accurate memory recall is impaired due to interference from other, similar memories. The research referred to in this question found that participants who slept remembered more than those who stayed awake. The results of this research suggest that forgetting is not due simply to the passage of time but, instead, to the events that follow learning. In other words, memory loss is due to the interference of other events.

Question 24

____________ used chimpanzees as his research subjects in studies designed to investigate the role of cognition in learning.

Answer 24

Kohler; Kohler’s work with chimpanzees led to his description of insight learning.

Question 25

covert sensitization

Answer 25

a type of aversive counterconditioning in which an undesirable behavior is paired with an unpleasant image. The goal of covert sensitization is to change the desirable response that occurs in response to a conditioned stimulus (CS) to an undesirable response in order to eliminate a behavior. As the result of pairing an imagined aversive scene with a sundae, eating a sundae has become unpleasant, and subsequently, "sundae-eating behavior" will be avoided or eliminated. The imagined aversive scene is the unconditioned stimulus (US), the sundae is the conditioned stimulus (CS), and the resulting avoidance behavior is both the unconditioned and conditioned response (UR/CR).

Question 26

The phenomenon known as "blocking" will occur in which of the following circumstances?

Answer 26

The CS is presented prior to the US until a CR is established; then the CS and a new neutral stimulus are presented together several times prior to the US; Blocking occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) blocks a second neutral stimulus from becoming a CS. The first step to blocking is establishing an association between the CS and the unconditioned stimulus (US). Then, a new neutral stimulus is presented in conjunction with the CS prior to presenting the US. When this sequence is followed, the new neutral stimulus provides redundant information because the occurrence of the US was fully predicted by the already-conditioned response (the CS) alone. Consequently, the neutral stimulus does not become associated with the US and does not produce a conditioned response (CR)

Question 27

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)

Answer 27

A third-wave behavioral therapy based on Relational Frame Theory (RFT). Based on the belief that it is counterproductive to control or suppress difficult emotions or psychological experiences. The use of acceptance and mindfulness strategies help clients to be fully present in the moment and to accept otherwise negative emotions. Clients learn to clarify their goals and values and commit to behavioral change strategies that align with their identified goals and values. Used together these strategies increase clients’ psychological flexibility.

Question 28

Behavioral Model/Lewinsohn

Answer 28

Lewinsohn’s behavioral model attributes depression to a low rate of response-contingent reinforcement due to inadequate reinforcing stimuli in the environment and/or the individual’s lack of skill in obtaining reinforcement.

Question 29

Biofeedback

Answer 29

Biofeedback provides the individual with immediate and continuous feedback about an ongoing physiological process (e.g., muscle tension, blood pressure) with the goal of enabling the individual to exercise voluntary control over that process. For many disorders (e.g., hypertension, tension headaches), relaxation is about equally effective as biofeedback. However, thermal biofeedback is a treatment-of-choice for Raynaud’s disease, and thermal biofeedback plus autogenic training is an effective treatment for migraine headaches.

Question 30

Blocking

Answer 30

In classical conditioning, blocking occurs when an association has already been established between a CS and US and, as a result, the CS blocks an association between a second neutral stimulus and the US when the CS and the second neutral stimulus are presented together prior to the US.

Question 31

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS/RESPONSE, CONDITIONED STIMULUS/RESPONSE):

Answer 31

In classical conditioning, a neutral (conditioned) stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus alone eventually elicits the response that is naturally elicited by the unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov’s original studies, the meat powder was the unconditioned stimulus and salivation was the unconditioned response. A tone was the conditioned stimulus. As a result of its pairing with meat powder, the tone eventually elicited a conditioned response of salivation.

Question 32

CLASSICAL EXTINCTION AND SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY:

Answer 32

Classical extinction is the elimination of a classically conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. Often, an extinguished conditioned response shows spontaneous recovery – i.e., it recurs in response to the CS following extinction without additional pairing of the CS and US

Question 33

COGNITIVE THERAPY/BECK (SCHEMAS, AUTOMATIC THOUGHTS, COLLABORATIVE EMPIRICISM, SOCRATIC DIALOGUE):

Answer 33

Beck’s cognitive therapy (CT) attributes depression and other psychopathology to certain cognitive phenomena including dysfunctional cognitive schemas (underlying cognitive structures), automatic thoughts (surface level cognitions), and cognitive distortions (systematic errors in information processing). CT is referred to as “collaborative empiricism” because of its emphasis on a collaborative relationship between therapist and client. Cognitive therapists often use Socratic dialogue (questioning) to help clients reach logical conclusions about problems and their consequences.

Question 34

DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT

Answer 34

Differential reinforcement (e.g., DRA, DRO, and DRI) is an operant technique that combines positive reinforcement and extinction. During a specified period of time, the individual is reinforced when they engage in behaviors other than the target behavior.

Question 35

EMDR (EYE MOVEMENT DESENSITIZATION AND REPROCESSING):

Answer 35

EMDR was originally developed as an intervention for PTSD but has since been applied to other disorders. It combines rapid lateral eye movements with exposure and other techniques drawn from cognitive, behavioral, and psychodynamic approaches. Some research suggests that its effectiveness is not due to rapid eye movements but, instead, to exposure to the feared event (i.e., to extinction).

Question 36

ESCAPE AND AVOIDANCE CONDITIONING:

Answer 36

Escape conditioning is an application of negative reinforcement in which the target behavior is an escape behavior – i.e., the organism engages in the behavior to escape the aversive condition. Avoidance conditioning combines classical conditioning with negative reinforcement. With avoidance conditioning, a cue (positive discriminative stimulus) signals that the aversive condition is about to be applied so that the organism can avoid it by performing the target behavior in the presence of the cue.

Question 37

FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT:

Answer 37

A functional behavioral assessment (FBA) is used to clarify the characteristics of a target behavior and determine its antecedents and consequences to identify an alternative behavior that serves the same functions and function-based interventions to substitute the alternative behavior for the target behavior

Question 38

HIGHER-ORDER CONDITIONING:

Answer 38

Higher-order conditioning occurs when a previously established CS serves as an US to establish a conditioned response for a new conditioned (neutral) stimulus – i.e., the new neutral stimulus is paired with the established CS so that, eventually, the new neutral stimulus produces a conditioned response.

Question 39

INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL (SENSORY MEMORY, STM, LTM):

Answer 39

The information processing (multi-store) model describes memory as consisting of three separate, but interacting, stores: sensory memory (sensory register), short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Sensory memory seems to be capable of storing a great deal of information, but the information is retained for no more than a few seconds. Information in sensory memory is transferred to STM when it becomes the focus of attention. STM holds a limited amount of information, and, without rehearsal, information begins to fade within 30 seconds. Information is likely to be transferred from STM to LTM when it is encoded, especially when encoding involves elaborative rehearsal (relating new information to existing information). The capacity of LTM seems to be unlimited.

Question 40

INSIGHT LEARNING/KOHLER:

Answer 40

Insight learning (the “aha” experience) refers to the apparent sudden understanding of the relationship between elements in a problem-solving situation. Insight learning was originally described by Kohler as a result of his research with chimpanzees.

Question 41

INTERFERENCE THEORY (RETROACTIVE AND PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE):

Answer 41

Interference theory proposes that the inability to learn or recall information is due to the disruptive effects of previously or subsequently learned information. Retroactive interference occurs when newly learned information interferes with the recall of previously learned information, while proactive interference occurs when prior learning interferes with the learning or recall of subsequent information.

Question 42

IN VIVO AVERSION THERAPY/COVERT SENSITIZATION:

Answer 42

In vivo aversion therapy utilizes counterconditioning to reduce the attractiveness of a stimulus or behavior by repeatedly pairing that stimulus or behavior in "real life" (in vivo) with a stimulus that produces an undesirable or unpleasant response. Pairing alcohol consumption with electric shock to reduce alcohol use is an example of in vivo aversive counterconditioning. In this situation, the alcohol is the CS, the electric shock is the US, and fear or discomfort is the UR/CR. Covert sensitization is similar to in vivo aversion therapy except that the CS and US are presented in imagination.

Question 43

IN VIVO EXPOSURE WITH RESPONSE PREVENTION/FLOODING:

Answer 43

In vivo exposure with response prevention is a classical extinction technique that involves exposing the individual in “real life” (in vivo) to anxiety-arousing stimuli (the CS) without the original US while preventing the individual from making their usual avoidance response. Flooding is a type of exposure that involves exposing the individual to the most anxiety-arousing stimuli for an extended period.

Question 44

LATENT LEARNING/TOLMAN:

Answer 44

Tolman’s model of latent learning proposes that learning can occur without reinforcement and without being manifested in performance improvement. Tolman’s research showed that rats formed “cognitive maps” of mazes without being reinforced for doing so.

Question 45

LAW OF EFFECT/THORNDIKE:

Answer 45

Thorndike’s law of effect proposes that when behaviors are followed by “satisfying consequences,” they are more likely to increase or occur again. This theory was originally derived from studies in which hungry cats were placed in “puzzle boxes” and had to perform a particular behavior to escape from the box and obtain food.

Question 46

LEARNED HELPLESSNESS MODEL/REFORMULATED VERSION:

Answer 46

The learned helplessness model was originally derived from the observation that animals who were subjected to an uncontrollable negative event (inescapable electric shock) subsequently did not try to escape that event when they were able to do so. The reformulated version of the model added attributions to the original theory and proposed that some forms of depression are due to the tendency to attribute negative events to internal, stable, and global factors. A subsequent revision acknowledged the role of attributions but proposed that they’re important only to the extent that they contribute to a sense of hopelessness.

Question 47

LEVELS-OF-PROCESSING MODEL:

Answer 47

The levels-of-processing model proposes that differences in memory are not due to different stores or stages but to different levels of processing. The model distinguishes between three levels – structural, phonemic, and semantic. The semantic level is the deepest level of processing and leads to the best retention.

Question 48

MNEMONIC DEVICES (METHOD OF LOCI, KEYWORD METHOD, ACRONYM, ACROSTIC):

Answer 48

Mnemonic devices are formal strategies for improving memory. The method of loci is a mnemonic that employs imagery in which items to be remembered are mentally placed, one by one, in pre-memorized (familiar) locations; and recall involves mentally “walking through” the location and retrieving the items. The keyword method is another imagery technique and is useful for paired associate tasks in which two words must be linked. Acronyms and acrostics are verbal mnemonics that are both useful for memorizing a list of words or phrases. An acronym is a word that’s formed using the first letter of each item, while an acrostic is a phrase or rhyme that is constructed from the first letter of each word.

Question 48

Matching Law

Answer 48

When using concurrent schedules of reinforcement, there are two or more simultaneous and independent schedules of reinforcement, each for a different response. According to the matching law, in this situation, the organism will match its relative frequency of responding to the relative frequency of reinforcement for each response.

Question 49

MULTI-COMPONENT MODEL/BADELEY AND HITCH:

Answer 49

According to the multi-component model, working memory consists of a central executive and three subsystems – the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer. The central executive is the primary component of working memory and serves as an “attentional control system.” It’s responsible for directing attention to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information, and coordinating the three subsystems.

Question 50

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (GUIDED PARTICIPATION, SELF-EFFICACY):

Answer 50

Bandura’s observational learning theory predicts that behaviors can be acquired simply by observing someone else (a model) perform those behaviors and that observational learning is cognitively mediated and involves four processes: attention, retention, production, and motivation. Research on observational learning found that participant modeling, which combines modeling with guided participation, is the most effective type of observational learning, especially for treating phobic reactions. Bandura’s theory predicts that self-efficacy beliefs (beliefs about one’s ability to perform a behavior or achieve a goal) are a primary source of motivation.

Question 51

OPERANT EXTINCTION AND EXTINCTION BURSTS:

Answer 51

Operant extinction refers to the elimination of a previously reinforced response through the consistent withholding of reinforcement following that response. Operant extinction is usually associated with a temporary increase in the response (an “extinction burst”).

Question 52

Overcorrection

Answer 52

Overcorrection is an operant technique that is used to eliminate an undesirable behavior. It involves having the individual correct the consequences of their behavior (restitution) and/or practice corrective behaviors (positive practice). It may also require constant supervision and/or physical guidance.

Question 53

OPERANT CONDITIONING/SKINNER (REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT):

Answer 53

According to Skinner, most complex behaviors are voluntarily emitted or not emitted as the result of the way they “operate” on the environment (i.e., as the result of the consequences that follow them). Skinner distinguished between two types of consequences. Reinforcement is a consequence that increases the likelihood that a behavior will recur, while punishment is a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will recur. He also distinguished between positive and negative reinforcement and punishment, with “positive” referring to the application of a stimulus (consequence) following a behavior and “negative” referring to the withdrawal or termination of a stimulus (consequence) following a behavior.

Question 54

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT (THINNING, SATIATION):

Answer 54

Positive reinforcement occurs when the application of a stimulus following a behavior increases the occurrence of the behavior. The establishment of a new behavior is usually most rapid when positive reinforcement is applied on a continuous schedule, while maintenance of the behavior (resistance to extinction) is maximized when the behavior is reinforced on an intermittent schedule. Consequently, the best procedure is to begin with a continuous schedule of reinforcement and change to an intermittent schedule once the behavior is well-established. The process of reducing the proportion of reinforcements is referred to as thinning. Up to a point, the greater the amount of positive reinforcement, the greater its effectiveness. However, past that point, satiation may occur, which means that the reinforcer has lost its reinforcing value.

Question 55

PREMACK PRINCIPLE:

Answer 55

The Premack Principle is an application of positive reinforcement that involves using a high-frequency behavior as a positive reinforcer for a low-frequency behavior

Question 56

PROCEDURAL AND DECLARATIVE MEMORY:

Answer 56

Long-term memory is conceptualized as consisting of procedural and declarative components: Procedural memory stores information about how to do things (“learning how”). Declarative memory mediates the acquisition of facts and other information (“learning that or what”) and is subdivided into semantic and episodic memory. Semantic memory includes memories for general knowledge that is independent of any context and is responsible for the storage of facts, rules, and concepts; while episodic memory consists of information about events that have been personally experienced.

Question 57

Prompts/Fading

Answer 57

Prompts are verbal or physical cues that facilitate the acquisition of a new behavior, and the gradual removal of a prompt is referred to as fading. (Note that the term fading is also used to describe the procedure that is used to eliminate an inappropriate stimulus-response connection by gradually replacing the inappropriate stimulus with appropriate stimuli so that the response becomes associated with the latter.)

Question 58

Prospective Memory

Answer 58

Prospective memory is considered by some researchers to be an aspect of long-term memory and is responsible for the ability to “remember to remember” (e.g., to remember a future appointment).

Question 59

PUNISHMENT/HABITUATION:

Answer 59

Punishment occurs when the application or withdrawal of a stimulus following a behavior decreases the occurrence of that behavior. A major disadvantage of punishment is that it suppresses (rather than eliminates) a behavior. Punishment is usually most effective when it is initially applied in moderation. Initially administering punishment in a weak form and then gradually increasing its intensity increases the likelihood of habituation, which occurs when a punishment loses its effectiveness.

Question 60

RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOR THERAPY/ELLIS:

Answer 60

From the perspective of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT), emotions and behaviors are the consequence of a chain of events — A-B-C — where A is the external event to which the individual is exposed; B is the belief the individual has about A; and C is the emotion or behavior that results from B. In other words, an emotional or behavioral response to an external event is due to beliefs about that event rather than to the event itself. According to Ellis (1985), the primary cause of neurosis is the continual repetition of certain common irrational beliefs which are the targets of therapy.

Question 61

RECIPROCAL INHIBITION:

Answer 61

Reciprocal inhibition is a form of counterconditioning developed by Wolpe to alleviate anxiety reactions by pairing a stimulus (CS) that produces anxiety with a stimulus (US) that produces relaxation or other response that is incompatible with anxiety.

Question 62

RESPONSE COST:

Answer 62

Response cost is a form of negative punishment that involves removing a reinforcer (e.g., a specific number of tokens or points) following a behavior in order to reduce or eliminate that behavior.

Question 63

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT (CONTINUOUS AND INTERMITTENT):

Answer 63

Continuous reinforcement involves providing reinforcement following each performance of the target response. It is associated with rapid acquisition of a response and a high susceptibility to satiation and extinction. Skinner distinguished between four types of intermittent (partial) schedules of reinforcement. The fixed interval (FI) schedule involves reinforcing the organism for each predetermined interval of time in which it makes at least one response; while the variable interval (VI) schedule involves providing reinforcement after a varying amount of time, with the average time interval being predetermined. A fixed ratio (FR) schedule involves providing reinforcement after a predetermined number of responses; and a variable ratio (VR) schedule entails applying the reinforcer after a varying number of responses, with the average number being predetermined. The VR schedule is associated with a high, stable rate of responding and the greatest resistance to extinction.

Question 64

SELF-CONTROL THERAPY/REHM:

Answer 64

Self-control therapy is a brief form of therapy based on the assumption that deficits in three aspects of self-control increase a person’s vulnerability to depression and make it difficult to deal effectively with depressive symptoms. The three aspects are: self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement.

Question 65

SELF-INSTRUCTIONAL TRAINING:

Answer 65

Self-instructional training is a cognitive-behavioral technique in which the individual learns to modify maladaptive thoughts and behaviors through the use of covert self-statements. It was originally developed as a way to help impulsive and hyperactive children slow down their behaviors and guide themselves through academic and other types of tasks.

Question 66

SERIAL POSITION EFFECT:

Answer 66

Research on the serial position effect has found that, when people are asked to recall a list of unrelated items immediately after reading the list, the items in the beginning and end of the list are recalled much better than those in the middle. The “primacy effect” occurs because items in the beginning of the list have already been rehearsed and stored in long-term memory, while the “recency effect” occurs because items at the end of the list are still in short-term memory.

Question 67

SHAPING VS. CHAINING:

Answer 67

Shaping and chaining are both used to establish complex voluntary behaviors. However, shaping (successive approximation training) involves teaching a new behavior through prompting and reinforcing behaviors that come closer and closer to the target behavior, while chaining involves establishing a sequence of responses (a “behavior chain”). With shaping, only the final behavior is of concern; but with chaining, the entire sequence of responses is important.

Question 68

STATE DEPENDENT LEARNING:

Answer 68

Research on state-dependent learning has shown that recall of information tends to be better when the learner is in the same emotional state during learning and recall.

Question 69

STIMULUS CONTROL:

Answer 69

In operant conditioning, stimulus control is the process by which a behavior does or does not occur due to the presence of discriminative stimuli. Positive discriminative stimuli signal that the behavior will be reinforced, while negative discriminative stimuli (S-delta stimuli) signal that the behavior will not be reinforced

Question 70

STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION AND EXPERIMENTAL NEUROSIS:

Answer 70

In classical conditioning, stimulus discrimination training is used to reduce stimulus generalization by teaching the organism to respond with a CR only in the presence of the original CS. When discriminations are difficult, the organism may exhibit experimental neurosis – i.e., it may perform unusual behaviors such as restlessness, aggressiveness, or fear.

Question 71

STIMULUS GENERALIZATION:

Answer 71

In operant and classical conditioning, stimulus generalization refers to responding with a particular response to similar stimuli. In classical conditioning, it refers to responding to stimuli similar to the CS with the CR; in operant conditioning, it refers to responding to stimuli similar to the discriminative stimulus with the target behavior.

Question 72

STRESS INOCULATION:

Answer 72

Stress inoculation is a cognitive-behavioral technique used to help individuals cope with stressful and other aversive states by enhancing their coping skills. It consists of three overlapping phases: cognitive preparation (conceptualization), skills acquisition and rehearsal, and application and follow-through.

Question 73

SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION/DISMANTLING STRAGEGY:

Answer 73

Systematic desensitization was developed by Wolpe as an application of counterconditioning (reciprocal inhibition) for eliminating anxiety responses and involves pairing hierarchically arranged anxiety-evoking stimuli with relaxation. Research using the dismantling strategy suggests that extinction (rather than counterconditioning) is responsible for its effectiveness.

Question 74

TIME-OUT:

Answer 74

Time-out is a form of negative punishment in which the individual is removed from all opportunities for reinforcement for a prespecified period of time following a misbehavior in order to decrease the occurrence of that behavior.

Question 75

TRACE DECAY THEORY:

Answer 75

Trace decay theory proposes that loss of memory (forgetting) is due to the gradual decay of memory traces (engrams) over time as the result of disuse.

Question 76

YERKES-DODSON LAW:

Answer 76

The Yerkes-Dodson law predicts that moderate levels of arousal are associated with optimal learning and performance so that the relationship between arousal and learning takes the shape of an inverted-U.

Question 77

Discriminative stimulus

Answer 77

A discriminative stimulus is a cue (antecedent) that signals that a particular response will be followed by a reinforcer. In the situation described in this question, the mother's yelling is serving as a cue that signals to Tommy that crying will result in reinforcement.

Question 78

encoding specificity principal

Answer 78

The encoding specificity principle proposes that the greater the similarity between the way information is encoded and the cues that are present at the time of recall, the better the recall. This prediction is confirmed by research on state-dependent learning, which has shown that recall of information is sometimes better when the learner is in the same emotional state during learning and recall. It is also supported by differences in the accuracy of recognition and recall. Performance is usually better on measures of recognition, apparently because recognition items provide more retrieval cues.

Question 79

Ebbinghaus

Answer 79

Ebbinghaus was among the first to conduct empirical studies on human memory. He was the participant in his own research, which involved memorizing lists of nonsense syllables and subsequently recalling the words to evaluate retention. His research led to the identification of learning and forgetting curves.