Learning

Question 1

Definition of learning

Answer 1

a process by which experience produces a relatively enduring change in an organism’s capacity for behaviour.

Question 2

what is Behaviourism

Answer 2

• Assumes that there are laws of learning that apply to virtually all organisms
• Learning is explained solely in terms of directly observable events; avoids speculating about an organism’s unobservable mental state (cognitions, emotions, thoughts and reflections)

Question 3

species adaptation

Answer 3

environmental conditions faced by each species help shape that species’ biology

Question 4

Natural Selection

Answer 4

genetically based characteristics that enhance a species’ ability to adapt to its environment, and thus to survive and reproduce, are more likely to be passed to the next generation

Question 5

Personal Adaptation:

Answer 5

how an organism’s behaviour changes in response to environmental stimuli encountered during its lifetime

Question 6

Habituation

Answer 6

A decrease in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus (one that doesn’t change and isn’t problematic for our survival) – you learn not to respond to that stimulus.

Learning not to respond to an event that occurs frequently

Allows organisms to conserve energy & attend to other important stimuli.

Contrasts with sensitization – an increase in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus.

Question 7

Classical Conditioning

Answer 7

A process in which an organism learns to associate two stimuli, such that one stimulus comes to elicit a response that originally was elicited only by the other stimulus
Process of association to make predictions.

Numerous examples:
• food and sickness
• music and nostalgia

Question 8

Pavlov’s Serendipitous Discovery

Answer 8

Pavlov discovered classical conditioning while studying the digestive system of dogs.

Initially he was studying the neural mechanisms controlling glandular secretions during digestion.

Gave food to the dog and collected the saliva.

After several sessions the dogs began salivating before they had been fed, usually when they saw the lab assistant who fed them.

Suggests a form of learning where one stimulus predicts the occurrence of another.

Lab assistant predicts -> food

He later investigated this further

Pavlov would sound a bell just before the dog would get some food

Then he would place some food into the dog’s mouth

After about 12 pairings the dog would salivate when the bell was rung (despite there being no food presented to the dogs)

Question 9

Before conditioning:

Answer 9

Food UCS -> Salivation UR

Sound CS -> Head turn, no salivation

Question 10

Conditioning:

Answer 10

Sound CS + Food UCS -> UR

Question 11

After conditioning:

Answer 11

Sound CS -> Salivating CR

Question 12

Forward short-delay pairing:

Answer 12

CS appears first and still present when UCS appears

Question 13

Forward trace pairing:

Answer 13

CS appears, then disappears, and then UCS is presented 2-3 seconds later

Question 14

Simultaneous pairing

Answer 14

CS and UCS are presented at the same time

Question 15

Backward pairing

Answer 15

CS is presented after the UCS

Question 16

what do different timed pairings do

Answer 16

strengthen the conditioning

Question 17

classical conditioning strongest when

Answer 17

– There are repeated CS-UCS pairings

– The UCS is more intense (in this case particularly intense stimuli could possibly cause conditioning in just one pairing)

– The sequence involves forward pairing

– The time interval between the CS & UCS is short

Question 18

Extinction:

Answer 18

a process in which the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of the UCS, causing the CR to weaken & eventually disappear – the relationship weakens and then disappears

Question 19

Spontaneous Recovery:

Answer 19

the reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a rest period & without new learning trials

Question 20

Stimulus Generalisation:

Answer 20

stimuli similar to the initial CS elicit a CR

– E.g. salivation may be elicited by a similar tone

Question 21

Discrimination:

Answer 21

a CR occurs in the presence of one stimulus but not others

– E.g. salivation may not be elicited by a much higher or lower tone

Question 22

Higher-Order Conditioning

Answer 22

Occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes a CS after being paired with an already established CS

Question 23

Acquiring & Overcoming Fear

Answer 23

Watson decided to investigate fear with Rosalie Rayner

An 11-month old infant boy was allowed to play with a white rat (NS – neutral stimulus).

When a steel bar was hit with a hammer just behind the infant’s head, he became very distressed (UCS).

The noise was paired with the rat & Albert became fearful (CR) of rats (CS).

The fear generalised to a number of other objects, including:

i. A rabbit
ii. A dog
iii. A Santa Claus mask

Ethically dubious, the learning was not reversed & ambiguous results.

Question 24

Exposure Therapies:

Answer 24

a patient is exposed to a stimulus (CS) that arouses an anxiety response without the presence of a UCS, allowing extinction to occur

Question 25

– Systematic Desensitisation:

Answer 25

: an example of an exposure therapy in which patients learn muscle-relaxation techniques & then are gradually exposed to the fear-provoking stimuli

Question 26

Aversion Therapy:

Answer 26

attempts to condition an aversion to a stimulus that triggers unwanted behaviour by pairing it with a noxious (harmful/toxic) UCS

Question 27

operant conditioning

Answer 27

Operant conditioning tells us about the relations between stimuli and our own behaviour The basic principles: • When an action has good consequence it will be repeated • When an action has bad consequences it tends not to be repeated

Question 28

The law of effect

Answer 28

Edward Thorndike: the first to develop the principles of operant conditioning (or instrumental learning) The animal could escape and eat when it operated the lever The cat would eventually open the box After several trials the cat would quickly open the box. The cat learnt to open the box because it led to a favourable outcome The occurrence of the favourable outcome strengthens the response that produced it… This is called the law of effect Experiments using hungry cats in puzzle boxes

Question 29

Skinner and Operant Conditioning

Answer 29

Burrhus Frederic Skinner built on & expanded Thorndike’s work Operant Conditioning: a type of learning in which behaviour is influenced by the consequences that follow it. He developed what became known as the Skinner box Above is a picture of a Skinner box Pressing on a lever will occasionally release a pellet of food The box keeps a record of each response.

Question 30

Reinforcement

Answer 30

a response is strengthened by an outcome that follows it

Question 31

Reinforcer:

Answer 31

the outcome (a stimulus or event) that increases the frequency of a response, e.g. food

Question 32

Punishment

Answer 32

a response is weakened by an outcome that follows it

Question 33

Punisher

Answer 33

a consequence that weakens (decreases) the frequency of a response, e.g. electric shock

Question 34

Three-part contingency

Answer 34

Operant behaviour involves three kinds of events that form a three-part contingency: A: antecedents of behaviour B: behaviour C: consequences that follow behaviour If A is present, and B is emitted, then C will occur

Question 35

Differences between CC & OC

Answer 35

Classical: Behaviour changes are due to the association of two stimuli (CS-UCS) presented prior to the response (CR) • Focuses on elicited behaviours Operant: Behaviour changes as the result of the consequences that follow it (reinforcement or punishment) • Focuses on emitted behaviours

Question 36

Discriminative Stimulus:

Answer 36

a signal that a particular response will now produce certain consequences, something that indicates that something is likely to happen (e.g. light in the Skinner box).

Question 37

Positive Reinforcement

Answer 37

occurs when a response is strengthened by the subsequent presentation of a stimulus e.g. being given food

Question 38

– Primary Reinforcers

Answer 38

stimuli that an organism naturally finds reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs, e.g. eating makes us less hungry

Question 39

– Secondary Reinforcers:

Answer 39

stimuli that acquire reinforcing properties through their association with primary reinforcers, e.g. money – you need money to get the food.

Question 40

Negative Reinforcement

Answer 40

occurs when a response is strengthened by the removal (or avoidance) of an aversive stimulus, e.g. – Negative Reinforcer: the aversive stimulus that is removed or avoided, e.g. “Positive” & “Negative” refer to presentation or removal of a stimulus, not “good” or “bad”.

Question 41

Operant Extinction

Answer 41

weakening & eventual disappearance of a response because it’s no longer reinforced, e.g. rat pressing the lever for food but no food being given will result in the rat not pressing the lever any more – Resistance to Extinction: the degree to which non-reinforced responses persist e.g. gambling

Question 42

Aversive / Positive Punishment

Answer 42

occurs when a response is weakened by the presentation of a stimulus, something is done to you to prevent you repeating that behaviour that may be negative or harmful.

Question 43

Negative Punishment / Response Cost

Answer 43

occurs when a response is weakened by the removal of a stimulus, something is taken away e.g. taking away pocket money

Question 44

Problems with punishment

Answer 44

* Doesn’t tell the person what they should do instead (alternative behaviour), just that they shouldn’t do it. * Can lead to problems with the relationship of the person giving the punishment * Only effective if it is combined with educational background – needs to be carried out in a correct environment.

Question 45

Shaping

Answer 45

Skinner developed a technique to teach new behaviours to his subjects. – E.g. reward rat for facing lever Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations towards the desired response. – E.g. reward rat for being closer to the lever but after a while only reward more refined behaviour. Something like shaping occurs with children learning at school.