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Psychology > Learning > Flashcards

Learning Flashcards

1
Q

Learning

A

Can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience.

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2
Q

Reflex

A

Automatic involuntary behaviour that does not require prior experience and occurs in the same way each time.

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3
Q

Fixed-action pattern

A

An innate predisposition to behave in a certain way in response to specific environmental stimulus that is observable within a particular species or subgroup of a species.

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4
Q

Maturation

A

A developmental process leading towards maturity, based on the orderly sequence of changes that occurs in the nervous system and other bodily structures controlled by genetic inheritance.

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5
Q

Plasticity

A

The ability of the brain’s neural structure or function to be changed by experience throughout the lifespan.

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6
Q

Developmental plasticity

A

Refers to changes in the brain’s neural structure in response to experience during its growth and development.

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7
Q

Synaptogenesis

A

The process of forming new synapses.

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8
Q

Synaptic pruning

A

The process of eliminating synaptic connections.

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9
Q

Adaptive plasticity

A

Refers to changes occurring in the brain’s neural structure to enable adjustment to experience, to compensate for lost function and/or to maximise remaining functions in the event of brain damage.

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10
Q

Rerouting

A

An undamaged neuron that has lost a connection with an active neuron may seek a new active neuron and connect with it instead.

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11
Q

Sprouting

A

The growth of new bushier nerve fibres with more branches to make new connections.

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12
Q

Sensitive period

A

A period in development when an organism is more responsive to certain environmental stimuli or experiences.

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13
Q

Experience-expectant learning

A

Takes place when the brain encounters the experience that is expected, ideally in a sensitive period because this is the best time for it to occur.

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14
Q

Experience-dependent learning

A

Refers to learning that ‘depends’ on exposure to specific ‘experience’ at any time during an individual’s development.

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15
Q

Critical period

A

A specific period in development during which an organism is most vulnerable to the deprivation or absence of certain environmental stimuli or experiences.

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16
Q

Conditioning

A

The process of learning associations between a stimulus in the environment (one event) and a behavioural response (another event).

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17
Q

Stimulus

A

Any object or event that elicits a response from an organism.

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18
Q

Response

A

A reaction by an organism to a stimulus.

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19
Q

Classical conditioning

A

Refers to a type of learning that occurs through the repeated association of two (or more) different stimuli.

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20
Q

Unconditioned stimulus

A

Any stimulus that consistently produces a particular, naturally occurring, automatic response.

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21
Q

Unconditioned response

A

The response that occurs automatically when the UCS is presented.

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22
Q

Conditioned stimulus

A

The stimulus that is ‘neutral’ at the start of the conditioning process and does not normally produce the unconditioned response.

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23
Q

Conditioned response

A

The learned response that is produced by the CS.

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24
Q

Neutral stimulus

A

Anything that does not normally produce a predictable response.

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25
Acquisition
The overall process during which an organism learns to associate two events.
26
Extinction
The gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a CR that occurs when the UCS is no longer presented.
27
Spontaneous recovery
The reappearance of a CR when the CS is presented, following a rest period after the CR appears to have been extinguished.
28
Stimulus generalisation
The tendency for another stimulus that is similar to the original CS to produce a response that is similar to the CR.
29
Stimulus discrimination
Occurs when a person or animal responds to the CS only, but not to any other stimulus that is similar to the CS.
30
Graduated exposure
Involves presenting successive approximations of the CS until the CS itself does not produce the conditioned response.
31
Imaginal exposure
Imagining each situation using visual imagery.
32
In vivo exposure
Real-life exposure to each fear-producing situation.
33
Flooding
Involves bringing the client into direct contact with the anxiety or fear-producing stimulus and keeping them in contact with it until the conditioned response is extinguished.
34
Aversion therapy
A form of behaviour therapy that applies classical conditioning processes to inhibit or discourage undesirable behaviour by associating it with an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus such as a feeling of disgust, pain or nausea.
35
Trial and error learning
Involves learning by trying alternative possibilities until the desired outcome is achieved.
36
Operant conditioning
A type of learning whereby the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future.
37
The three phase model of operant conditioning
1. The discriminative stimulus that occurs before a particular response. 2. The response that occurs due to the discriminative stimulus. 3. The consequence to the response.
38
Discriminative stimulus
The stimulus that precedes a particular response, signals the probable consequence for the response and therefore influences the occurrence of the response.
39
Response
Voluntary behaviour that occurs in the presence of the discriminative stimulus.
40
Consequence
The environmental event that occurs immediately after the response and determines whether or not the response will occur.
41
Skinner box
A small chamber in which an experimental animal learns to make a particular response for which the consequences can be controlled by the researcher.
42
Reinforcement
Occurs when a stimulus strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a response that it follows.
43
Reinforcer
Any stimulus that strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a response that it follows.
44
Positive reinforcer
A stimulus that strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a desired response by providing a satisfying consequence.
45
Positive reinforcement
Occurs from giving or applying a positive reinforcer after the desired response has been made.
46
Negative reinforcer
Any unpleasant or aversive stimulus that, when removed or avoided, strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a desired outcome.
47
Negative reinforcement
The removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus.
48
Punishment
The delivery of an unpleasant consequence following a response, or the removal of a pleasant consequence following a response.
49
Positive punishment
Involves the presentation of a stimulus and thereby decreasing the likelihood of a response occurring again.
50
Negative punishment
Involves the removal or loss of a stimulus and thereby decreasing the likelihood of a response occurring again.
51
Response cost
Involving removal of any valued stimulus, whether or not it causes the behaviour.
52
Schedule of reinforcement
A program for giving reinforcement: specifically the frequency and manner in which a desired response is reinforced.
53
Continuous reinforcement
Reinforcing every correct response after it occurs.
54
Partial reinforcement
The process of reinforcing some correct responses but not all of them.
55
Fixed-ratio schedule
When the reinforcer is given after a set, unvarying number of desired responses have been made.
56
Variable-ratio schedule
When the reinforcer is given after an unpredictable number of correct responses.
57
Fixed-interval schedule
Involves delivery of the reinforcer after a specific, or fixed, time has elapsed since the previous reinforcer, provided the correct response has been made.
58
Variable-interval schedule
When reinforcement is given after irregular, or variable periods have passed, provided the correct response has been made.
59
Acquisition - operant
The establishment of a response through reinforcement.
60
Extinction - operant
The gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a conditioned response following consistent non-reinforcement of the response.
61
Spontaneous recovery - operant
After the apparent extinction of a conditioned response the organism will once again show the response in the absence of any reinforcement.
62
Stimulus generalisation - operant
Occurs when the correct response is made to another stimulus that is similar to the stimulus that was present when the conditioned response was reinforced.
63
Stimulus discrimination - operant
Occurs when an organism makes the correct response to a stimulus and is reinforced, but does not respond to any other stimulus, even when stimuli are similar.
64
Shaping
A procedure in which a reinforcer is given for any response that successively approximates and ultimately leads to the final desired response, or target behaviour.
65
Token economy
A setting in which an individual receives tokens (reinforcers) for desired behaviour.
66
Observational learning
Occurs when someone uses observation of a model's actions and the consequences of those actions to guide their future actions.
67
Social learning theory
Emphasises the importance of the environment, or 'social context', in which learning occurs.
68
Vicarious conditioning
The individual watches a model's behaviour being either reinforced or punished, and then subsequently behaves in exactly the same way or in a modified way, or refrains from the behaviour, as a result of what they have observed.
69
Vicarious reinforcement
Increases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way to a model whose behaviour is reinforced.
70
Vicarious punishment
Occurs when the likelihood of an observer performing a particular behaviour decreases after having seen a model's behaviour being punished.

Psychology (7 decks)

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