Learning and Attitudes

Question 1

What is learning?

Answer 1

Learning: The activity or process of acquiring knowledge or skills by studying, practicing or experiencing something.

• Behavioural learning: Learning as a response to changes in our environment (Stimulus-Response).
• Cognitive learning: Focuses on learning through internal mental processes.

Question 2

Learning Theories:

Answer 2

• Classical Conditioning
• Operant (or instrumental) Conditioning
• Cognitive Learning

Question 3

Classical conditioning:

Answer 3

A process of learning by an extension of a pre-existing response from one stimulus onto another stimulus through exposure to the two stimuli simultaneously and repeatedly.

Question 4

Classical Conditioning: Marketing Applications

Answer 4

• Principles of classical conditioning widely used.
• Pairing with music.
• Use of celebrities: Aim is to transfer the endorser’s characteristics and what they stand for to the brand.
• Process of extinction.

Question 5

Associations can change over time and are based on different pairing of stimuli and contexts and eras:

I

Answer 5

Question 6

Associations can change over time and are based on different pairing of stimuli and contexts and eras:

II

Answer 6

Question 7

Operant Conditioning:

Answer 7

Behavioural change through reinforcement.

• Based on the work of Skinner (1938) who rewarded animals for behaviours - process known as shaping.
• One learns a behaviour because it is rewarding!
• Learning can be encouraged through the use of positive and negative reinforcements.

Question 8

Behavioural Learning: Operant (or Instrumental) Conditioning

Answer 8

Question 9

Cognitive Learning:

Answer 9

Rejects the behavioural approach.

• Focus: What happens in the consumer’s mind and the cognitive processes of evaluation and interpreting information.
• Internal mental processes.

Question 10

Analogical learning:

Answer 10

Example of cognitive learning strategy.

• Transfer of knowledge from a familiar domain (the base) to a novel domain (the target) as a function of the structural correspondence between the two (Gentner, 1989).
• Analogies work because they make the unfamiliar familiar!

Question 11

Potential risks of analogies:

Answer 11

1) May have negative perceptions of the base, which will be transferred to target (Google Glass…);
2) May not know the base and not understand analogy;
3) May wrongly infer that aspects of the base can transfer to the target (You may think that Plowz will be there within minutes, like Uber would, which is not the case).
4) May focus mainly on corresponding features, ignoring others which may be important (Walkzee wants to improve chances of adoption: Not communicated by the Uber analogy).

Question 12

Memory:

Answer 12

System whereby information is received, sorted, organized, stored and retrieved over time.

• Encoding: How information enters memory.

Can be facilitated by brand names that include main product benefit

• Storage is how the encoded information is retained in memory.
• Strategic memory protection: We protect our ability to remember important experiences

Question 13

Memory Types:

Answer 13

• Sensory Memory: Short-lived, automatic representation of information while processed by senses.
• Short-term memory (or working memory): Where current information is processed. Short- term but conscious and active processing. Limited capacity and duration.
• Long-term memory: Can store information for longer periods of time. Names of hundreds of friends, colleagues, hundreds of events, lyrics etc.

Active vs. Passive

Question 14

How accurate are our memories?

Answer 14

Which of these words appeared in the three lists you just scanned?

Top - Chair - Sleep - Seat - Slow - Strong - Yawn - Mountain – Sweet

Classic study by Roediger and McDermott (1995) People claimed to recognize the associated words (like sleep) about as often as words that were actually presented on the list – around 85% of the time.

Question 15

How can you improve the likelihood that information will be transferred from short term to long term memory?

Answer 15

Transferring information from STM to LTM (Encoding)

Repetition: Incidence of an occurrence more than once. Saying something again and again, hearing it often etc.

Mnemonics: Help us remember information through some nonsensical associations.

Elaboration: Active processing of information in conjunction with information already in the memory so as to identify meaning in the new information.

Question 16

Methods that help learning via repetition

Answer 16

• Use music (including jingles) and distinctive imagery.
• Learning via repetition also called “rote learning” – One of the easiest ways that we learn.
• Use visual information: Iconic rote memory;
• Aural (heard) information: Echoic rote memory.

Question 17

Measuring recognition and recall:

Answer 17

Recognition: Identifying a stimulus as having been encountered before.

Recall:

• Unaided Recall: Accessing information without any clues.
  
  • What advertisements did you see yesterday while watching Brooklyn Nine-Nine?
• Aided Recall: Accessing information with some clues.
  
  • Did you see an advertisement for the NHS?

Question 18

• Metro trains, Melbourne, Australia, released a 3-minute message designed to encourage young people to behave safely around trains.
• Generally: Rather boring message, not that one young people pay attention to…

BUT: This one was different! Over 160 million views onYoutube… What was it?

Answer 18

Dumb Ways to Die

Repetition:

• STRONG VISUAL IMAGERY (Iconic rote memory)
• CATCHY SONG – Message at the end (Echoic rote memory)
• Campaign generated more than 160 million views on YouTube
• 450,000 pledges to be safe around trains on the campaign site
• A song that charted on iTunes in 28 countries
• Most importantly, within just two months of launching: 20% reduction in rail-related accidents in November to January 2013, compared to the same time the previous year - This well exceeded the 10% objective for the entire year

Question 19

Attitudes:

Answer 19

A learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favourable or unfavourable manner in relation to some object.

Attitudes are learned, have an evaluative dimension, intensity, consistency and stability.

Question 20

Structural Approaches to Attitudes – The tri-component model:

Answer 20

Cognitive component
A person’s beliefs or knowledge about an issue or object.

Affective component
A person’s feelings or emotions about the issue of the object; Can be ‘positive’ or ‘negative’.

Behavioural component

Consists of how the individual is likely to respond to the object based on what they know and feel about it.

Question 21

Hierarchy of Effects

Answer 21

Question 22

Main theoretical perspectives on attitudes:

Answer 22

• Balance Theory of Attitudes
• Motivational theories: The functional theory of attitudes (Katz, 1960)
  
  • Utilitarian function
  • Ego-defensive function
  • Value-expressive function
  • Knowledge function
• Expectancy-value model (or Fishbein model)
• Theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 2005)

Question 23

Balance Theory of Attitudes:

Answer 23

• Psychological drive to ensure all elements are balanced.
• Linked to the theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957): State of having inconsistent beliefs and attitudes.

Question 24

Motivational theories: The functional theory of attitudes (Katz, 1960)

Answer 24

• Understanding of motives (or functions) is required.
• Marketing campaigns are more persuasive when they address functions underlying the attitude targeted for change.
• Four main functions: Utilitarian, Ego- defensive, Value-Expressive, Knowledge.

Question 25

Utilitarian function:

Answer 25

* Consumers seek **maximum utility and value** from their consumption. * You place value on these useful aspects and are seeking to **fulfil a utilitarian motivation through consumption**, which informs positive attitudes towards it. * **Nurofen**: Easy to take, offers fast and effective pain relief!

Question 26

Ego-defensive function:

Answer 26

* Attitudes have the function of **defending your self-image**, making us feel better about ourselves. * Protection of our sense of self, ensuring we **control aspects of our selves deemed unacceptable in some way**. * **Grooming routines and rituals**/ Personal hygiene products (deodorants).

Question 27

Value-expressive function

Answer 27

Also called social identity function. * Drive to **express important aspects of the self**. * Consumers using products or brands to **project, rather than hide, some aspects of themselves**/ how they would like to be perceived. Example: Louis Vuitton and Japanese artist Kusama. * Emphasizes further **symbolic meanings** for the brand around **cultural values and cultural authenticity.** * Wearing bag designed by artists brings consumer closer to the artists, **expressing consumers’ social capital!**

Question 28

Knowledge function:

Answer 28

Looking to change mobile phone? If you have Samsung and are happy with the brand, you are likely to draw on positive knowledge as you look for new phone. * **Knowledge-based attitudes** act as **frame** **of reference to help** **consumer** **understand consumption context**. * Important to predict attitudes/**brand extensions**.

Question 29

Multiple functions:

Answer 29

Products and brands can often serve **multiple functions**. * **Car**: Multi-functioned product (**utilitarian concerns**: safety; **value expressive**: implied social status). * **Tents:** * **Utilitarian**: Cheap and easy to pitch; * **Value-Expressive:** Trendy for a festival! * Also: **knowledge function** based on past experiences

Question 30

Multi-Attribute Models of Attitudes:

Answer 30

Work by unpacking the many aspects or **attributes of the attitude object** and attempting to work out **how important each of these is to consumers**. * Expectancy-value model (or Fishbein model) * Theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 2005)

Question 31

Expectancy value model (or Fishbein model):

Answer 31

* Is it **tasty**? * Is it **healthy**? * What is most important to you?

Question 32

Theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 2005)

Answer 32

* **Behavioral belief:** Belief/ consequences behavior. * **Attitude toward** **behavior****:** Degree to which performance of behavior is positively/ negatively valued. * **Normative beliefs:** Perception of relevant others' beliefs that you should/ should not perform such behavior. * **Subjective norm:** Perception about the particular behavior, influenced by judgment of significant others. * **Control beliefs:** Beliefs about the presence of factors that may facilitate or impede performance of the behavior. * **Perceived** **behavioral** **control:** Perceived ease or difficulty of performing the particular behavior.

Question 33

Attitudes and behaviour change: **Changing the basic motivational function**

Answer 33

Builds on Katz’ s motivational theory of attitudes; * “**Simply M&S**”: Satisfying **utilitarian** needs, good value for money, simple product; * Different from existing line “**Your M&S**”, where utilitarian value was emphasized less, and more **value-expressive** with link to identity:“Your”.

Question 34

Attitude and behaviour change – **Altering components of the multi-attribute models**

Answer 34

Influencing attitudes and behaviours through **changing beliefs**. Meet the Superhumans Paralympics campaign. What was the aim here?

Question 35

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) (Petty and Cacioppo, 1986

Answer 35

Question 36

Selected Appeal Types:

Answer 36

* **Emotional** vs. **Rational** * **Sex** Appeals * **Humour** Appeals * **Fear** Appeals * **Two-sided** vs. **one-sided**

Question 37

Rational Message Appeal:

Answer 37

* Works best for functional products. * Intends to **change attitudes by changing beliefs**.

Question 38

Emotional Message Appeal:

Answer 38

Designed to mold our feelings, including: * Romance * Sympathy * Nostalgia Works best for expressive products

Question 39

Sexual Appeal:

Answer 39

Takes one of the following forms: * Skin shown; * Suggestive poses; * Intimate embrace. Works by **attracting attention** and **raising the salience of the brand name** When can they backfire? Sexism

Question 40

Humour Appeal:

Answer 40

* Works best when consumers **already have a positive attitude towards the brand**; * The product is **low in involvement**; * The **joke and brand message** **are** **integrated**. When can they backfire? Not funny, customers remember the message but not the brand..

Question 41

Fear Appeal:

Answer 41

* Works best when consumers are sufficiently motivated * Raises the problem’s salience * Helps to lift consumers out of apathy and inaction * The solution should be clear and not too difficult to implement When can they backfire? negative emotions but doesn't trigger a change in behaviour..

Question 42

One vs. Two-Sided:

Answer 42

* Two-sided messages present **both the merits and the demerits** **of a brand**, product or issue. * Help raise credibility * Advisable where there is a **likelihood that the audience will find out about the less attractive** (or even unattractive) **side** of the product.

Question 43

**Summary** Learning and Attitudes :

Answer 43

**_Learning_** * Behavioural learning - Classical and instrumental conditioning; * Cognitive learning; * Memory types and processes; **_Attitudes_** * Structural approaches to attitude; • Balance theory; * Motivational theories; * Multi-Attribute models; * Changing attitudes; * ELM;